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BULLETINS 


of  the 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


bulletins 

102-113 

ANNUAL  REPORT 
1915-16 


1914-17 


LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


102- The  morphology  of  the  sheep  tape- 

worm, Leroy  D.  Swingle 

A 

103- 1. Corn  vs.  barley  in  lamb  rations.  II. 

Methods  of  feeding  barley  to  lambs, 

A.  D.  Faville 

104- Forage  crops,  T.  S,  Parsons 

105- The  eradication  of  the  3heep  tick,  L.  D. 

Swingle 

1 06- 1. Cottonseed  cake  vs.  cold  pressed  cotton- 

seed cake  for  beef  cows.  II. Mixed  grains 
vs.  cottonseed  cake  for  growing  beef 
cattle,  A.  D.  Faville 

107- Swine  feeding,  A.  D.  Faville 

108- Cattle  feeding,  A.  D.  Faville 

109- Sheep  feeding,  A.  D,  iFaville 

110- Sweet  clover,  T.  S.  Parsons 

111- Alfalfa  in  Wyoming,  T.  S.  Parsons 

112- The  poisonous  properties  of  the  two-grooved 

milk  vetch,  0.  A.  Beath  and  4.  H.  Lehnert 

113- The  effect  of  alkali  upon  portland  cement, 

Karl  Steik 

Twenty-sixth  annual  report  of  the  University  of 
Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
1915-1916 


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* 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING. 


BULLETIN  NO.  102 

JANUARY,  1914. 


The  Morphology  of  the 
Sheep  Tape- Worm 

Thysanosoma  Actinioides 

( Technical ) 


By  LEROY  D,  SWINGLE 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address  Director  Exper- 
iment Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 
Officers. 


TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE.  LL.  B ....President 

. D.  SPALDING....  Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 


Executive  Committee. 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 

Members. 


Term 

Appointed  Expires 

1908... I-iO'N.  GIBSON  CLARK 19.1  o 

1911 HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A .1915 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING...  19.15 

1911 HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913 HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

HON.  ROSE  A.  BIRD  MALEY,  State  Superintendent  of 

Public  Instruction  Ex  officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D Ex  officio 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M.  . 

A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

A.  D.  FAV1LLE,  B.  S... 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E, 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S 

O.  L.  PRIEN,  M.  D.  V 

S.  K.  LOY,  Ph.  D 

L.  D.  SWINGLE,  Ph.  D.* 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

F.  E,  HEFNER,  M.  S 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

E.  V.  LYNN,  M.  A 

J.  E.  McWILLIAMS,  B.  S 

JAMES  McLAY*  

C.  I).  MOIR 

F.  S.  BURRAGF,  B.  A 


President 

Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

.....Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Wool  Specialist 

Veterinarian 

Chemist 

Parasitologist 

Parasitologist 

Assistant  Chemist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Assistant  Chemist 

Wool  Assistant 

...Stock  Superintendent 

Clerk 

Secretary 


♦Resigned  Oct.  1,  1913. 


The  Morphology  of  the  Sheep 
Tape- Worm. 

Thysanosoma  Actinioides 


By  LEROY  D.  SWINGLE. 


The  Fringed  Tapeworm  of  sheep,  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  is  very  prevalent  in  Wyoming.  Mpst  of  the  sheep 
slaughtered  at  Laramie  are  infected.  But  in  spite  of  its  com- 
monness and  the  ill  effects  it  produces  when  present  in  large 
numbers,  neither  its  anatomy  nor  its  life-history  has  been 
worked  out. 

Curtice  (1.890)*  has  given  us  the  best  account  of  the 
worm.  He  made  some  experiments  to  determine  the  meth- 
od of  transmission,  but  his  results  were  negative.  His  de- 
scription of  the  anatomy  of  the  worm,  based  on  examination 
of  fresh  or  unstained  worms,  is  more  adequate  than  any  other 
1 have  seen.  Still  he  did  not  work  out  the  details  of  structure 
as  they  are  to  be  found  in  microscopic  sections. 

In  this  bulletin  I wish  to  present  further  details  of  the 
morphology.  Photographs,  which  tell  more  than  words,  ac- 
company the  brief  descriptions. 

The  adult  worm  varies  greatly  in  length,  but  is  generally 
not  more  than  15  inches  long.  It  is  characterized  by  a fringe, 
which  projects  from  the  posterior  borders  of  the  segments.  In 
the  neck  region  this  fringe  is  absent.  It  begins  to  appear  on 
about  the  20th  segment.  In  this  region  the  border  is  slightly 
wavy  (Fig.  1).  On  the  more  posterior  segments  it  appears  as 
scallops  (Fig.  2). 

*Cooper  Curtice.  The  Animal  Parasites  of  Sheep. 

U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  189  0. 


104 


Wyo.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BL’L.  102 


Still  farther  back  the  fringe  is  composed  of  long,  regular 
papillae  (Fig.  3).  They  are  occasionally  bifurcated. 

The  segments  are  short  as  compared  with  their  length, 
except  in  the  posterior  region  (Fig.  2).  There  are  about 
five  to  six  hundred  segments  in  a worm  a foot  long.  Each 
of  the  more  mature  segments  bears  a genital  pore  on  each 
side.  Concretions  are  present  in  both  the  medulla  and  cortex, 
especially  in  the  anterior  segments.  The  scolex  bears  four 
large  suckers.  No  hooks  or  rostellum  are  present  (Fig.  1 ). 
The  neck  is  very  short  and  hardly  apparent. 

Four  excretory  ducts,  arising  in  the  scolex,  pass  back- 
ward through  the  worm  in  a lateral  position.  The  two  ducts 
nearer  the  median  line  ('dorsal  ducts)  are  smaller  and  more 
convoluted  except  near  the  scolex,  than  the  outer  (ventral) 
pair,  which  become  larger  toward  the  middle  and  posterior 
portion  of  the  worm.  (Fig.  2 and  4).  The  outer,  or  ventral, 
pair  are  connected  in  the  posterior  region  of  each  segment  by 
a cross  duct  (Fig.  5).  Cross  sections  of  the  worm  near  the 
head  show  many,  about  28,  small  longitudinal  ducts  on  each 
side  of  the  medulla  at  its  juncture  with  the  cortex  (Fig.  6).  No 
connection  between  these  ducts  and  the  other  excretory  ducis 
was  found. 

In  the  neck  region  the  ventral  excretory  ducts  each  give 
off  at  short  intervals  a duct  which  immediately  bifurcates, 
one  branch  passing  dorsallv  and  the  other  ventrally  through 
the  medulla  and  joining  the  corresponding  ducts  from  the 
opposite  side.  These  dorsal  and  ventral  branches  give  off 
branches  to  the  cortex. 

A pair  of  nerves  arise  in  the  scolex  and  pass  backward 
through  the  worm  in  a lateral  position.  They  are  very 
prominent  (Figs.  2,  A and  6),  and  show  no  cross  branches. 

The  longitudinal  muscles  constitute  a well  developed  layer 
in  the  parenchyma  of  the  cortex.  Figure  7 shows  the  large 
fibers  as  they  appear  in  longitudinal  section.  In  figures  8 


The  Morphology  of  the  Sheep  Tape- Worm. 


105 


and  9,  cross  sections  of  a mature  proglottis,  they  are  seen  to 
occupy  practically  all  of  the  cortex.  The  dorso-ventral  mus- 
cles are  slight  and  insignificant. 

The  reproductive  system  is  especially  interesting.  Yet, 
as  far  as  I am  aware,  its  morphology  has  not  been  wonted 
out  in  detail.  The  male  and  female  organs,  except  the  uterus, 
begin  development  simultaneously.  The  uterus  does  not 
begin  development  till  the  overv  is  well  differentiated. 

In  the  earliest  stage  of  development  the  position  of  the 
ovary,  vas  deferens  and  seminal  receptacle  is  indicated  by  a 
thickening  of  the  cells  (Fig.  4 Ov).  This  condition  occurs  in 
about  the  200th  proglottis.  The  testes  do  not  yet  appear.  But 
by  the  time  the  vas  deferens  has  differentiated  from  the 
thickened  mass  of  cells  the  testes  appear  (Fig.  10).  They 
lie  in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  segment,  althrough  they 
may  occupy  nearly  all  of  the  segment  until  the  uterus  begins 
to  develop.  (Figs.  12  and  13).  In  respect  to  dorso-ventral 
differentiation  they  occupy  the  middle  of  the  proglottis  and 
fill  the  medulla  (Fig.  ii).  Since  the  ovaries  also  are  median 
there  is  strictly  no  dorso-ventral  differentiation. 

Efferrent  ducts  leading  out  from  the  testes  empty  into 
the  vasa  efferentia  which  live  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
proglottis  (Figs.  10,  vd  and  31  ef).  In  the  early  stages  the 
vas  deferens  passes  anterior  to  the  ovary  (Fig.  10).  But 
when  the  ovary  becomes  large,  it  embraces  the  vas  deferens 
(Fig.  12).  The  vas  deferens  passes  in  almost  a straight  line 
toward  the  genital  pore  until  it  reaches  the  region  of  the 
ventral  excretory  duct  where  it  becomes  sharply  convoluted. 
'Figs.  10  and  12).  It  then  passes  through  the  cirrus  sac  and 
opens  at  the  end  of  the  cirrus  (Figs.  13.  14  and  15).  The  last 
mentioned  figure  shows  the  cirrus  in  the  act  of  emitting  sperm 
cells.  The  va  gina  opens  into  the  genital  pore  alongside  the 
vas  deferens  (Fig.13).  It  passes  in  a more  or  less  straight  line 
to  the  seminal  recepticle  which  lies  in  the  center  of  the  ovary 
(Figs.  10,  17,31).  The  seminal  receptacle  is  sharply  differen- 


106 


Wyo.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BUL.  102 


tiated  from  the  vagina  (Figs.  27  and  29).  When  the  ovary 
is  discharging  its  eggs,  the  seminal  receptacle  is  found  to  be 
filled  with  sperm  cells  (Fig.  29.) 

After  the  testes  and  ovaries  have  become  well  developed 
there  appears  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  segment  a thick- 
ened mass  of  cells  extending  from  one  ovary  across  the  pro- 
glottis  to  the  other.  Soon,  little  spaces  make  their  appear- 
ance in  this  mass  (Figs.  17  and  18.)  These  constitute  the 
uterus.  Just  anterior  to  and  median  from  the  ovary  there 
develops  a special  chamber  in  the  uterus  (Figs.  17  and  20). 
The  oviduct  empties  into  this  chamber  (Figs.  17  and  20I. 
The  fertilized  eggs  are  deposited  in  this  chamber  and  from  it 
passed  into  the  uterus  proper. 

The  ovary  develops  into  a very  regular  and  spherical 
mass  (Fig.  18).  In  the  center  of  it  just  posterior  to  and  on 
one  side  of  the  seminal  receptacle,  a chamber  develops  (Figs. 
17,  27,  29  and  30).  I shall  call  it  the  receptaculum  ovorum 
because  the  eggs  from  the  ovary  are  discharged  into  it.  (Figs. 
29  and  30).  From  the  median  side  of  this  chamber  the  ovi- 
duct leads  out  and  passes  to  the  uterus  (Figs.  30  and  31). 
At  about  its  middle  point  it  is  joined  by  the  median  end  of 
the  seminal  receptacle  (Fig.  31).  The  receptaculum  ovorum 
at  first  contains  a parenchymatous  tissue  but  as  soon  as  the 
eggs  begin  co  fill  it  this  tissue  disappears  (Figs.  17,  27  and 
29).  The  walls  of  the  receptacle  of  the  ovary  are  contiguous, 
where  the  eggs  are  allowed  to  enter  (Fig.  29  e).  The  eggs- 
evidently  pass  out  of  the  receptacle  by  way  of  the  ovi- 
duct and  are  fertilized  in  the  region  of  the  seminal  re- 
ceptacle. They  then  pass  to  the  uterus  (Fig.  31). 
The  seminal  receptacle  becomes  bent  around  the  receptacu- 
ilum  ovorum  so  as  to  form  a U-shaped  chamber  (Figs.  22  and 
27).  No  shell  gland  or  vitelloria  could  be  found.  The  uterus 
is  continuous  from  one  side  of  the  proglottis  to  the  other- 
After  the  spaces,  such  as  are  shown  in  figures  18  and  24,  are 
established,  a thickened  band  of  cells  appears  just  anterior 


The  Morphology  of  the  Sheep  Tape-Worm. 


107 


to  the  spaces  (f  ig.  18).  From  this  band  the  uterine  pouches 
soon  develop.  While  this  is  going  on  the  spaces  are  being 
filled  with  eggs  (Fig.  19).  The  thickened  band  seems  to 
break  up  into  a comb-like  structure,  the  teeth  of  which 
later  become  tongue-like  and  the  whole  structure  becomes 
tortuous  (Figs.  21,  23  and  9).  Gradually  the  eggs,  which 
are  deposited  in  the  uterus  proper  arrange  themselves  in 
regular  columns  (Figs.  23,  25  and  28).  In  cross  sections  the 
uterus  and  its  pouches  are  shown  to  be  convoluted.  They 
are  like  a pad  which  is  thrown  into  sharp  folds  (Fig.  9)  This 
accounts  for  the  appearance  one  gets  in  a frontal  section 
where  the  eggs  appear  to  be  in  nests  capped  with  the  pouches 
(Figs.  25  and  26.)  Curtice  (1890)  describes  the  pouches  as 
filled  with  eggs.  I have  never  found  any  signs  of  their  fill- 
ing the  pouches,  even  in  the  ripest  segments.  Still  the 
pouches  appear  as  if  they  ought  to  open  and  receive  the  eggs, 
although  they  are  always  solid  masses  of  tissue. 

As  development  of  the  uterus  proceeds  the  testes  gradu- 
ally degenerate  and  the  ovary  disappears,  all  of  its  eggs  be- 
ing extruded.  Every  vestige  of  the  ovary  disappears  while 
the  testes  are  still  apparent  (Fig.  25).  The  seminal  receptacle 
persists  almost  to  the  last  (Fig.  25),  but  finally  when  the 
proglottis  is  ripe  practically  all  of  the  structures  are  gone  ex- 
cept the  uterus,  filled  with  embryos,  and  the  uterine  pouches 
(Fig.  28). 

The  relation  of  all  the  organs  is  shown  in  detail  in  the 
drawing  (Plate  VI,  Fig  31). 

I am  indebted  to  Dean  H.  G.  Knight  for  valuable  aid  in 
the  photography. 


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Wyo.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BUL.  102 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 


A.  Anterior. 

C.  Cirrus. 

Cp  Cirrus  pouch. 

Cu  Cuticula 

d.  Longitudinal  canals  between  cortex  and  medulla. 

Dc.  B’orsal  excretory  canal. 

e.  Eggs. 

f.  Fringe. 

gp.  Genital  pore. 

lm.  Longitudinal  muscles. 

m.  Medulla. 

n.  Nerve, 
od.  Oviduct, 
p.  Posterior. 

pa.  Paranchyma. 

ro.  Receptaculum  ovorum. 

rs.  Receptaculum  seminis. 

s.  Sperm  cells. 

sc.  Subcuticular  cells, 
si  Segment  limits. 

t.  Testes. 

tc.  Transverse  Excretory  Canal, 
up.  Uterine  Pouches, 
ut.  Uterus, 
va.  Vagina. 

vc.  Ventral  excretory  canal. 

vd.  Vas  deferens.  . . 

ve.  Vasa  efferentia. 

X.  Chamber  which  receives  the  fertilized  eggs  from  the  oviduct. 
All  the  figures  are  arranged  with  the  anterior  end  towaul 
the  top  of  the  page. 

PLATE  I. 

Fig.  1.  S'colex  and  first  segments  of  the  worm. 

Fig.  2.  Surface  view  of  the  worm  in  the  region  anterior  to  t!  e 
point  where  the  reproductive  organs  begin  to  develop.  It  shows  the 
scalloped  stage  of  the  fringe. 

Fig.  3.  Surface  view  of  the  fringe  toward  the  middle  of  the  wum. 
Fig.  4.  Frontal  section  in  the  region  where  the  reproductive 
organs  are  beginning  to  develop. 


The  Morphology  of  the  Sheep  Tape-Worm. 


109 


Fig.  5.  Frontal  section  showing  the  transverse  excretory  canals 
leading  elf  from  die  ventral  canal.  The  juncture  of  the  canals  Is 
shown  at  vc. 

PLATE  II. 

Fig.  6.  Cross  section  ot  the  worm  near  the  head.  At  d are 
shown  the  longitudinal  canals  between  the  cortex  and  medulla. 

Fig.  7.  Frontal  section  showing  the  longitudinal  muscle  fibers. 

Fig.  8.  Cross  section  of  ripe  proglottid. 

Fig.  9.  Cross  section  of  ripe  proglottid  showing  the  tortuous 
condition  of  the  uterus  and  uterine  pouches. 

Fig.  10.  Frontal  section  from  the  anterior  portion  of  the  worm. 
The  early  stages  of  development  of  the  reproductive  organs  are  shown. 

Fig.  11.  Cress  section  of  the  worm  showing  reproductive  organs 
well  developed.  The  testes  and  ovaries  are  shown  to  be  neither 
dorsal  nor  ventral. 

PLATE  III. 

Fig.  12.  Frontal  section,  showing  the  testes,  ovaries  and  vas 
deferens.  (Left  side  of  worm.) 

Fig.  13.  Frontal  section  of  the  cirrus  pouch  and  the  vagina.  (Left 
side  of  worm.) 

Fig.  14.  Frontal  section  of  the  cirrus  protruded.  (Right  side 
of  worm.) 

Fig.  15.  Cirrus  in  the  act  of  expelling  sperm  cells.  (Right  side 
cl  worm.) 

Fig.  16.  Frontal  section  showing  an  early  stage  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  ovary,  seminal  receptacle  and  oviduct.  The  uterus  is 
indicated  by  a band  of  thickened  cells.  (Right  side  ot  worm). 

Fig.  17.  A little  later  stage  than  the  preceding  figure.  The 
uterus  appears  as  cavities  in  the  thickened  hand  ceRs.  The  recepta- 
culum  ovarum  has  made  its  appearance.  The  oviduct  shows  plainly. 
(Right  side  of  worm). 

PLATE  IV. 

Fig.  18.  Frontal  section  showing  the  repetition  of  reproductive 
organs  in  succeeding  proglctRds.  Tn  tHs  stage  the  ovary  has  reached 
if  a maximum  size  and  is  spherical.  The  uterine  spaces  show  plain- 
ly. (Left  side  of  worm.) 

Fig.  19.  A later  stage  in  the  uterine  development  than  is  shown 
in  the  preceding  figure.  The  spaces  have  become  more  regular  and 
chamber-like  and  are  filled  with  eggs. 

Fig.  20.  A little  later  stage  than  the  preceding.  The  uterus  Is 
hrcaaer  and  the  chamberlike  arrangement  has  disappeared.  The 


no 


Wyo.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


bul.  10: 


principal  feature  to  be  noted  is  the  presence  of  a receptacle  in  the 
uterus  for  the  reception  of  the  fertilized  eggs.  The  entrance  oi  the 
oviduct  to  the  chamber  can  be  seen  at  od.  (Left  side  of  worm.) 

Fig.  21.  This  shows  the  same  stage  of  uterine,  development  as 
the  preceding  figure.  The  thickened  hand  of  cells  just  anterior  to 
the  uterus  as  shown  in  figure  19  has  given  rise  to  a comb-like  struc- 
ture, up,  which  is  the  beginning  of  the  uterine  pouches. 

Fig.  22.  Enlarged  view  of  figure  25,  showing  the  seminal  recep- 
tacle at  rs.  On  account  of  its  U-shape  it  appears  in  two  parts.  (Right 
side  of  worm.'/ 

Fig.  23.  Frontal  section  of  the  worm  where  the  reproductive  or- 
gans have  matured  and  the  ovary  has  degenerated.  Note  the  col- 
umnar arrangement  of  the  eggs  in  the  uterus.  (Left  side  of  worm.) 

Fig.  24.  Section  of  the  ovary  and  early  uterus.  The  oviduct 
passing  from  the  region  of  the  seminal  receptacle  to  the  uterus  is 
very  plain.  (Right  side  of  worm.) 

PLATE  V. 

Fig.  25.  Frontal  section  showing  the  well  developed  and  filled 
uterus.  The  testes  are  still  prominent  although  the  ovary  has  disap* 
peared.  The  seminal  receptacle  persists  almost  to  the  last.  (Left 
side  of  worm.) 

Fig.  26.  Frontal  section  of  the  uterus,  showing  the  nest-like 
appearance  of  the  uterus  due  to  its  convolutions  in  the  plane  at 
right  angles. 

Fig.  27.  Section  through  the  ovary  showing  the  receptaculum 
ovorum,  and  the  entrance  of  the  vagina  into  the  receptaculum  sem- 
inis.  (Left  side  of  worm.) 

Fig.  28.  Frontal  section  of  ripe  proglottids.  Practically  the  only 
organ  shown  is  the  uterus  filled  with  embryos,  (eggs). 

Fig.  29.  Section  through  the  ovary  showing  the  seminal  recep- 
lacle  engorged  with  sperm  cells.  Posterior  to  it  ean  be  seen  the 
receptaculum  ovorum  filled  with  eggs  that  are  being  discharged  from 
the  lobe  in  the  ovary  on  the  right  side.  (Right  side  of  worm). 

Fig.  30.  Shows  the  oviduct,  od,  leading  out  of  the  receptaculum 
ovorum.  In  the  region  of  its  left  end  it  is  joined  by  the  seminal 
receptacle.  (Right  side  of  worm). 

PLATE  VI. 

Fig.  31.  A diagrammatic  drawing  reconstructed  from  camera 
lucida  drawings  of  sections.  It  shows  the  relation  of  the  organs. 
This  same  condition  is  repeated  in  the  opposite  side  of  the  proglottid. 
The  uterus  pouches  are  not  shown. 


The  Morphology  of  the  Sheep  Tape- Worm. 


Ill 


PLATE  I. 


112 


Wyo.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BUL.  102 


PLATE  II. 


The  Morphology  of  the  Sheep  Tape-Worm.  H 


AO 


PLATE  III. 


114 


Wyo.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BUL.  10 


PLATE  IV. 


The  Morphology  of  the  Sheep  Tape- Worm. 


115 


PLATE  V. 


116 


Wyo.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BUL.  102 


PLATE  VI. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 


LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


BULLETIN  NO.  103 


I.  Com  vs.  Barley  in  Lamb  Rations 

II.  Methods  of  Feeding  Barley  to  Lambs 
A.  D.  FAVILLE,  Animal  Husbandman. 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address:  Director 

Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


When  fed  to  fattening  lambs  corn  gave  somewhat 
better  returns  than  did  barley.  Pages  4 and  5. 

Whole  dry  barley  proved  fully  as  satisfactory  in 
lamb  fattening  rations  as  did  soaked  barley,  cracked 
barley  or  barley  meal.  Pages  6 and  7. 


Introduction 

& & tig 

Henry  states  that  “sheep  worth  feeding  can  always 
grind  their  own  grain.”  Under  eastern  condition  this 
statement  doubtless  holds  true,  but  does  it  apply  with 
equal  force  where  hard  western  grains  are  used?  The 
experiment  outlined  in  the  following  pages  was  under- 
taken with  the  idea  of  throwing  some  light  on  this  ques- 
tion, while  at  the  same  time  the  additional  data  was  gath- 
ered as  to  the  relative  feeding  value  of  corn  and  barley* 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  EXPERIMENT. 

The  lambs  to  be  used  in  this  experiment  were  se- 
cured in  the  fall  of  1912  from  a flock  near  Laramie.  They 
were  a small,  unattractive  looking  bunch  in  which  Ram- 
bouillet  blood  predominated.  Most  of  them  were  wether 
lambs  that  had  been  castrated  when  it  was  found  that 
they  would  make  inferior  rams;  and,  while  they  appeared 
to  be  rather  indifferent  feeders,  subsequent  developments 
showed  them  to  be  a thrifty  lot.  The  lambs  were  dipped 
after  being  taken  from  the  range  and  all  were  given  sim- 
ilar rations  for  several  weeks  prior  to  the  opening  of  the 
experiment  proper. 

Mr.  James  Wilson,  one  of  the  Senior  Agricultural 
students,  did  most  of  the  morning  and  evening  feeding. 

The  test  was  begun  November  26th  and  continued 
for  110  days.  Details  as  to  the  weight  and  number  of 
lambs  in  each  lot  and  the  feeds  used  are  shown  in 
Table  A. 


4 


Table  A — Divisions,  Weights  and  Feeds. 


Lot. 

No.  in 
Lot 

Avg.  Wt. 
Per  Head. 

Feed  Used. 

Lbs. 

Roughage. 

Grain. 

I 

24 

43.1 

Alfalfa  Hay 

Whole  Corn 

II 

24 

46.4 

Alfalfa  Hay 

Dry  Whole  Barley 

III 

24 

44.2 

Alfalfa  Hay 

Soaked  Whole  Barley 

IV 

24 

43.8 

Alfalfa  Hay 

Cracked  Barley 

V 

24 

43.1 

Alfalfa  Hay 

Barley  Meal 

The  lambs  though  light  were  in  a condition  to  make 
rapid  gains  when  given  the  opportunity. 


Second  cutting  alfalfa  hay,  exceptionally  fine  in 
quality,  was  fed.  This  hay  was  grown  near  Laramie  and 
was  without  doubt  the  best  used  at  the  Station  for  some 
years. 

The  barley  used  (Scotch)  was  also  grown  near  Lar- 
amie and  was  about  average  in  quality.  Soaked  barley 
was  prepared  by  weighing  out  the  amount  required  for 
a feed,  after  wdiich  it  was  soaked  in  slightly  warmed 
water  for  12  hours  and  allowed  to  drain  suspended  in  a 
gunny  sack  for  another  12  hours.  Cracked  barley  was 
barley  very  coarsely  ground,  while  in  barley  meal  the 
barley  was  made  as  fine  as  possible. 

Corn  was  shipped  in  from  the  east. 

Cood  shelter  and  an  exercising  yard  was  provided 
for  each  lot. 

One  lamb  in  Lot  III  died  during  the  course  of  the 
experiment.  His  place  was  immediately  filled  by  another 
animal  of  the  same  type  and  breeding,  weighing  prac- 
tically the  same  as  the  dead  lamb.  No  readjustment  of 
figures  was  made  because  of  this  loss. 

The  same  amounts  of  grain  were  fed  each  lot  and 
there  was  almost  no  difference  in  the  quantity  of  hay 
eaten  per  pen. 

RATION  RESULTS. 

Lots  I and  II  furnish  a comparison  of  corn  and 
barley  while  Lots  II.  Ill,  IV  and  V bring  out  the  value 


5 


of  different  methods  of  feeding  barley.  No  attempt  has 
been  made  to  compare  these  lots  separately  in  the  fol- 
lowing tables. 

Table  B gives  a condensed  summary  of  the  weights 
and  gains  of  each  lot  of  lambs. 

Table  B — Average  Weights  and  Gains  Per  Lamb. 


Lot. 

Wt.  at 
Beginning 

Lbs. 

Wt.  at 
Close 
Lbs. 

Total 

Gain 

Lbs. 

Daily 
1 Gain 
Lbs. 

I Corn  

43.1 

82.8 

39.7 

.36 

II  Barley  

46.4 

83.3 

36.9 

.34 

Ill  Soaked  Barley 

44.2 

80.3 

36.1 

.33 

IV  Cracked  Barley.. . 

43.8 

79.5 

35.7 

.32 

V Bariev  Meal 

43.1 

79.3 

36.2 

.33 

As  will  be  seen  at  once,  gains  were  uniformly  good. 
Corn  gave  slightly  the  best  results  while  the  whole  bar- 
ley gave  somewhat  greater  gains  than  barley  fed  in  any 
other  way. 

The  lambs  at  the  close  of  the  experiment,  though 
not  extremely  fat,  were  in  good  killing  condition  and 
were  readily  taken  by  the  local  markets. 

Table  C — Average  Feed  Consumed  Per  Lamb  {110)  Days 


Lot. 

Waste 

Hay 

Per 

Lot,  Lbs. 

Average  Feed  Eaten  Per  Head 

Alfalfa, Lbs. 

Grain,  Lbs. 

I Corn  

75 

296 

79 

II  Barley  

90 

295 

79 

Ill  Soaked  Barley. 

78 

296 

79 

IV  Cracked  Barley 

70 

296 

79 

V Barley  Meal 

85 

294 

1 

79 

There  was  almost  no  difference  in  the  total  amount 
of  feed  eaten  by  the  lambs  in  the  different  lots.  The 
average  daily  ration  per  lamb  was  as  follows: 


Alfalfa  Hay 
Grain  


.2.70  pounds 
. .72  pounds 


/ 


6 

The  average  weight  of  the  lambs  taken  at  the  middle 
of  the  trial  was  approximately  62  pounds.  If  feed  re- 
quirements look  small  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
lambs  were  small. 

The  grain  ration  was  increased  from  .4  of  a pound 
per  head  at  the  beginning  of  the  trial  to  1 pound  during 
the  sixth  week  and  then  dropped  back  to  % of  a pound 
during  the  last  weeks  of  the  experiment.  Apparently 
the  lambs  ivere  forced  too  rapidly,  necessitating  a cut- 
ting down  in  the  daily  allowance. 

As  a rule,  the  lambs  receiving  whole  dry  barley 
seemed  to  relish  their  grain  better  than  did  those  receiv- 
ing barley  in  any  other  form. 

Table  D,  giving  the  feed  requirements  for  100 
pounds  gain  contains  some  interesting  figures: 


Table  D — Feed  for  100  pounds  Gain. 


Lot. 

Alfalfa 

Lbs. 

Grain 

Lbs 

I Whole  Corn  

746. 

199. 

II  Whole  Barley  

799. 

214. 

Ill  Soaked  Barley  ... 

820. 

219. 

IV  Cracked  Barley  ... 

829 

221 

V Barley  Meal  

812. 

21S. 

Whole  corn  effected  a saving  of  15  pounds  of  grain 
and  53  pounds  of  hay  when  compared  with  whole  barley. 
In  other  words,  it  required  15  pounds  or  seven  per  cent 
less  grain  and  53  pounds  or  six  and  one-half  per  cent 
less  alfalfa  for  100  pounds  gain  when  corn  replaced  bar- 
ley in  a ration. 

Feed  requirements  for  all  of  the  barley  lots  were 
remarkably  uniform.  Dry  whole  barley  gave  slightly  the 
best  returns,  hence  it  is  safe  to  assume  from  results  ob- 
tained in  the  foregoing  trial  that  soaking,  cracking,  or 
grinding  western  barley  does  not  increase  its  value  in 
lamb  rations. 

Grain  requirements  for  100  pounds  gain  were  un- 
usually low  in  the  experiment,  due  probably  to  two  im- 


7 


portant  factors.  First,  the  lambs  were  in  condition  to 
make  rapid  and  economical  gains.  Second,  the  alfalfa 
hay  used  was  exceptionally  fine  in  quality. 

Table  E — Composition  of  Feeds. 

(Analysis  by  F.  E.  Hepneir.) 


Percentage  Composition,  Airdry  Substance. 


FEED. 


Water. 

Ash. 

Crude 

Protein. 

Crude 

Fiber. 

Nitrogen 
free  . 
Extract.  ' 

Extract 
| Ether 

Alfalfa  

Corn  (Mostly 

• 6.39 

9.30 

19.17* 

24.84  ' 

38.63 

j 1.67 

Yellow  Dent)... 

10.88 

1.39 

9.85 

1.76 

72.01 

| 4.11 

Barley  

10.02 

2.69 

10.63 

3.53 

70.95 

1 2.18 

*Tliis  alfalfa  is  richer  in  crude  protein  than  any  other  sample 
of  alfalfa  analyzed  here. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 

BULLETIN  NO.  104 


Oats  and  Peas  for  Ensilage. 


FORAGE  CROPS 

Bv  T.  S.  Parsons,  Agronomist. 

Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address:  Director 

Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 
Officers. 


TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B President 

C.  D.  SPALDING  * Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 


Executive  Committee. 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 

Members.  Term 


Appointed  Expires 

1908 HON.  GIBSON  CLARK 1915 

1911 . Hon.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A..... L915 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING . 1915 

1911 HON  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  . ..  .HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  ..HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

HON.  ROSE  A.  BIRD  MALEY,  State  Superintendent  of  Public 

Instruction.  - Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL. 

C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D President 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT.  A.  M Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

C.  D.  MOIR  .- : , jClerk 


A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S 

O.  L.  PRIEN,  M.  D.  V 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E 

A D.  FAVILLE,  B.  S.*  

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

S.  K.  LOY,  Ph.  D 

J.  E.  MCWILLIAMS,  B.  S... 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

O.  H.  BEATH,  M.  A 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S.* 

E.  N.  ROBERTS,  B.  A 

S.  M.  FULLER,  B.  S 

* Absent  on  leave. 

*Resigned  Sept.  1,  1914. 


.Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

Wool  Specialist 

Veterinarian 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Chemist 

Animal  Husbandman 

Parasitologist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Chemist 

Assistant  Chemist 

Wool  Assistant 


Forage  Crops 


T.  S.  PARSONS,  Agronomist 


INTRODUCTION. 

During  the  past  four  years  some  experiments  have 
been  conducted  at  the  Experiment  Station  with  a view  of 
gaining  some  information  as  to  the  adaptability  of  va- 
rious forage  crops  to  the  soils  and  climate  of  Wyoming. 
Numerous  inquiries  have  been  received  from  new  settlers 
and  others  as  to  what  crops  can  be  grown  the  first  year 
or  two  for  pasture,  hay  and  forage,  to  tide  them  over 
the  time  until  the  land  will  produce  a crop  of  alfalfa  or 
ether  hay. 

The  general  subject  of  forage  crops  will  be  treated 
under  three  heads  as  follows : 

1st.  Leguminous  forage  crops. 

2nd.  Gramineous  forage  crops. 

3rd.  Miscellaneous  forage  crops. 

DEFINITIONS. 

A forage  crop  is  any  crop  the  leaves  or  stems  or 

both  of  which  are  used  either  green  or  dried  for  feeding 
to  stock.  The  green  plants  may  be  grazed  as  in  a pasture 
or  they  may  be  cut  and  fed  green  as  a soiling  crop. 

Hay  is  the  cured  or  dry  stems  and  leaves  of  the 


12  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  104 


finer  grasses  and  other  forage  plants. 

Fodder  is  the  cured  stems  and  leaves  of  corn,  sor- 
ghum, or  other  coarse  plants  cut  just  before  maturity 
and  fed  without  removing  the  grain. 


Field  Peas  for  Forage. 


Stover  is  corn  or  other  fodder  from  which  the  grain 
has  been  removed. 

Certain  forage  plants,  of  which  corn  is  the  principal 
one,  may  be  cut  green  and  stored  in  the  silo ; the  product 
is  then  known  as  silage  or  ensilage. 

The  average  altitude  of  the  farming  land  in  Wyo- 
ming is  6000  feet.  Therefore,  it  is  impossible  to  grow 
corn  even  for  forage  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  This 
being  the  case,  it  is  necessary  to  grow  those  crops  that 
will  take  the  place  of  corn  both  as  dry  forage  and  pre- 
served as  silage.  For  this  reason  corn  wTill  not  be  dis- 
cussed in  this  bulletin. 

LEGUMINOUS  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

Under  this  head  may  be  placed  such  crops  as  alfalfa, 
field  peas,  vetches  and  sweet  clover.  The  hardier  va- 
rieties of  beans  and  the  Whip-poor-will  cow  peas  may  be 


Forage  Crops 


13 


added  to  this  list  for  the  lower  altitudes  of  the  state. 

Alfalfa  is  pre-eminently  the  great  forage  crop  for  the 
semi-arid  regions.  Every  farmer  should  {grow  some 
alfalfa  as  soon  as  he  can  get  his  land  in  shape  for  it. 
It  is  difficult,  however,  to  get  a stand  of  alfalfa  on  new 
breaking  and  a full  crop  is  not  produced  until  the  second 
or  third  year  after  seeding,  so  it  is  necessary  for  the 
farmer  to  grow  some  other  crops  as  forage  until  he  can 
have  the  alfalfa.  A fuller  discussion  of  alfalfa  will  be 
left  for  another  bulletin. 

Field  Peas — Field  peas  are  undoubtedly  the  best  of 
the  annual  legumes  for  the  higher  altitude  conditions. 
They  are  a cool  climate  crop  and  do  best  where  the  nights 
are  cool  and  the  days  not  too  warm.  A large  yield  per 
acre  of  either  green  forage  or  cured  hay  may  be  obtained. 
Peas  being  nitrogen  gatherers  also  have  a beneficial 
effect  on  the  soil,  and  probably  fit  the  soil  better  for 

alfalfa  than  do  many  other  crops.  It  does  not  innoculate 
for  alfalfa  as  the  bacteria  found  on  the  roots  of  the  pea 
plants  are  not  of  the  same  species  as  those  found  on  the 
alfalfa  roots,  but  there  seems  to  be  a physical  effect  on 
the  soil  that  is  beneficial  to  the  alfalfa. 

In  the  spring  of  1910  two  small  areas  were  sown  to 
alfalfa.  One  had  been  in  grain  the  preceding  year  and 
the  other  in  field  peas.  The  soil  of  each  plot  was  alike 
and  the  seeding  was  done  at  the  same  time.  The  plat 
that  had  been  in  peas  gave  a perfect  stand  of  alfalfa, 
while  on  the  plat  that  had  been  in  grain  the  preceding 
year  a very  poor  stand  was  obtained.  The  soil  on  the 
former  plat  was  in  better  condition  and  wTas  compacted 
more  easily  after  plowing.  One  of  the  main  factors  in 
successful  alfalfa  growing  is  a well-prepared  and  well- 
compacted  seed  bed.  The  experiment  is  not  of  sufficient 
extent  to  prove  conclusively  that  the  good  stand  was  due 


1 4 Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  104 

to  the  peas  but  indications  would  seem  to  point  that  way. 
A farmer  in  the  Encampment  Valley  who  sowed  a field 
of  alfalfa  in  the  spring  of  1913  under  directions  from  this 
Station  reported  alfalfa  seed  sown  after  peas,  April  1st, 
gave  a good  cutting  of  hay,  August  10th. 

Peas  and  Oats — Peas  being  of  a trailing  or  climbing 
habit  of  growth,  it  is  generally  better  to  plant  them  with 
some  grain.  Oats,  barley,  rye  or  emmer  may  be  used. 
The  straw  offers  a support  for  the  peas  to  climb  up  and 
they  will  thus  be  held  up  from  the  ground,  make  a better 
growth  and  the  lower  leaves  will  not  turn  yellow  and  die 
as  they  do  when  the  peas  are  grown  alone.  The  peas  and 
oats  also  make  a good  ensilage  crop  when  cut  green  and 
put  in  the  silo.  All  of  the  peas  and  oats  grown  on  the 
Experiment  Farm  in  1913  were  used  for  this  purpose 
and  are  now  being  fed  to  stock  with  good  results. 

Soils — Peas  and  oats  for  forage  will  do  very  well  on 
nearly  all  soils.  Better  soils  will  of  course  produce  bet- 
ter crops.  They  have  been  grown  on  a variety  of  soils 
on  the  Experiment  Farm,  from  heavy  clay  to  sandy  loam. 
Barnyard  manure  has  proved  beneficial  to  the  crop. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil — The  soil  should  be  thor- 
oughly prepared  to  make  a good  seed  bed  and  sowing 
should  be  done  early,  at  the  higher  altitudes  as  early  in 
the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked. 

Methods  of  Sowing — The  usual  plan  has  been  to  sow 
the  oats  and  peas  together,  either  broadcasting  dr  drill- 
ing. It  is  difficult  to  set  the  drill,  howTever,  to  sow  the 
proper  amount  of  each  at  the  same  time,  and  it  has  been 
observed  that  in  many  cases  when  the  crop  is  cut  there  is 
a much  larger  percentage  of  oats  than  peas.  The  oats 
seem  to  grow  more  rapidly  and  crowd  the  peas  out.  Peas 
will  stand  deeper  planting  than  oats,  therefore,  altho  no 
experiments  have  been  carried  out  along  this  line,  it  is 
suggested  that  the  peas  be  sown  broadcast  and  disked  in 
to  the  depth  of  at  least  three  and  one-half  inches,  or  they 
may  be  drilled  in,  and  ten  days  or  two  wTeeks  later  drill 
in  the  oats  shallower.  Thus  the  peas  will  have  obtained 


Forage  Crops 


15 


a good  start  and  will  not  be  so  apt  to  be  crowded  out  by 
the  oats. 

Amounts  to  Sow — The  amounts  to  sow  will  vary 
with  conditions.  Where  irrigation  is  practiced,  60  lbs., 
of  peas  and  35  to  40  lbs.  of  oats  per  acre  should  be  sown. 
Under  ordinary  dry  farm  conditions  where  the  annual 
rainfall  is  from  14  to  18  inches,  25  to  30  lbs.  of  each 
should  be  sown. 

Varieties  of  Peas — The  White  Canada  is  the  variety 
most  generally  grown.  The  high  prices  for  seed  prevail- 
ing the  last  two  or  three  years,  however,  have  made  the 
use  of  this  seed  almost  prohibitive.  The  Colorado  Stock 
Peas  have  been  used  at  the  Station  the  last  two  years  and 
have  been  found  fully  as  satisfactory  as  the  Canadian 
variety  and  have  the  advantage  of  being  much  cheaper. 

The  Colorado  Stock  Pea  is  a hybrid  which  originated 
in  the  San  Louis  Valley  of  Colorado.  It  probably  came 
from  the  Golden  Vine  intermingling  with  the  Native  or 
Mexican  peas.  It  grows  tall  and  has  purple  blossoms. 
It  is  fully  as  hardy  as  the  Canadian  pea  and  as  good  a 
yi  elder. 

Three  new  varieties  of  field  peas  were  imported  by 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  sufficient  amounts 
of  each  were  sent  to  this  Station  for  trial  in  1913.  The 
three  varieties,  known  as  Bangalia,  Amraoti  and  Kaiser, 
made  fair  yields  of  forage  but  no  better  than  the  Cana- 
dian or  the  Colorado  Stock  Peas.  They  need  to  be  tested 
further  as  regards  their  value  for  either  seed  or  forage. 

Peas  with  Other  Grains — Peas  may  be  sown  with 
fairly  good  results  with  other  grains,  such  as  barley,  rye 
and  emmer,  but  the  combination  with  oats  usually  gives 
the  best  results,  altho  a heavy  yield  of  peas  and  emmer 
was  obtained  on  the  Experiment  Farm  in  1912.  (See 
Table) . Barley  is  very  good  for  late  sowing  as  it  grows 
more  rapidly  and  does  better  in  hot  weather  than  oats. 

Vetches — The  vetches  generally  grown  are  of  two 
kinds,  spring  vetch  ( Vida  sativa)  and  the  hairy  or  winter 


1 6 Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  1 04 


vetch  (Vicia  villosa)  The  latter  is  the  only  one  that  is 
recommended  for  Wyoming  conditions,  It  may  be  sown 
in  the  fall  with  rye  and  under  ordinary  conditions  will 
produce  considerable  forage.  It  has  been  sown  with  fall 
rye  at  the  Experiment  Station  but  winter  killed  badly. 
At  the  lower  altitudes  of  the  state  it  should  be  a good 
crop  for  fall  sowing  with  rye,  of  wheat.  It  is  quite 
hardy  and  alkali  resistant,  germinating  well  on  soils  too 
alkaline  for  most  legumes.  The  plat  on  which  rye  and 
vetch  was  sown  in  the  fall  of  1911  on  the  Experiment 
Farm  was  quite  alkaline,  in  fact  so  alkaline  that  field 


Swedish  Select  Oats  for  Forage. 


peas  sown  on  it  the  previous  year  did  not  germinate. 
The  vetch  germinated  readily  and  grew  well  in  the  fall. 
The  small  yield  was  due  to  winter-killing. 

Rye  and  Vetch — On  May  9,  1911,  a one-half  acre  plat 
was  sown  to  one  bushel  of  spring  rye  and  12  lbs.  of 
spring  vetch  ( Vicia  sativa) . The  rye  made  an  excellent 
growth  but  the  vetch  did  not  come  well  so  it  was  decided 
to  let  the  rye  ripen  for  seed.  The  plat  produced  343 
pounds  of  grain,  or  at  the  rate  of  14.9  bushels  per  acre. 
If  the  piat  had  been  cut  green  for  forage  it  probably 


Forage  Crop: 


17 


would  have  produced  about  one  ton  of  rye  hay. 

Another  half-acre  plat  was  sown  on  the  same  date 
to  one  bushel  of  oats  and  twelve  pounds  of  vetch.  This 
made  a good  growth  and  was  given  but  one  irrigation  of 
1.05  feet  of  water  during  the  season,  and  two  cuttings  of 
forage  were  made,  the  first  on  July  31st  of  1810  lbs.  of 
cured  hay  and  the  second  on  September  5th  of  880  lbs. 
■of  cured  hay,  a total  for  the  plat  of  2690  lbs.,  or  a yield 
of  cured  hay  of  2.19  tons  per  acre. 

Oats  and  vetch  made  a good  forage,  probably  as  high  in 
feeding  value  as  oats  and  peas,  but  the  oats  and  peas  will 
give  a larger  yield  as  vetch  does  not  germinate  as  well 
as  the  peas,  altho  a heavier  sowing  of  the  vetch  would 
probably  be  better. 

In  1912,  one  acre  was  devoted  to  forage  crops  for 
the  purpose  of  comparing  vetch  and  oats,  peas  and  oats, 
and  peas  and  barley.  One-quarter  acre  was  devoted  to 
each  crop.  Thru  a misunderstanding  on  the  part  of  the 
man  seeding,  peas  and  emmer  were  combined  instead  of 
peas  and  barley. 

All  of  the  plats  Were  sown  on  May  20th.  The 
plats  receiVed  but  one  irrigation  and  all  of  the  plats  were 
cut  on  August  16th.  The  average  height  of  the  grain  was 
forty  inches  and  just  in  the  dough  stage  when  cut.  Yields 
for  each  quarter-acre  were  as  follows  ^ 

Vetch  and  oats,  980  lbs. 

Peas  and  emmer,  1040  lbs. 

Peas  and  oats,  600  lbs. 

Hanna  barley,  770  lbs. 

The  barley  alone  made  a good  yield  of  hay.  This 
variety  is  a two-rowed  species  and  is  very  leafy,  being 
probably  the  best  barley  for  forage.  Had  it  been  com- 
bined with  peas  the  yield  would  probably  have  been 
heavier. 

The  emmer  and  peas  made  the  best  yield  in  the  trial 
and  it  would  seem  that  this  combination  would  be  a good 


1 8 Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  1 04 


one  for  forage.  The  yields  given  in  each  case  are  of 
cured  hay. 

Sweet  Clover — The  sweet  clovers  are  biennial  plants 
belonging  to  the  clover  family.  They  do  not  produce 
flowers  or  seed  until  the  second  year,  when  they 
mature  seed  and  die.  There  are  two  species,  the  white 
and  the  yellow.  The  white  is  most  extensively  grown 
and  is  the  best  forage.  On  account  of  its  scarcity  the 
seed  is  more  expensive  than  the  yellow.  For  this  rea- 
son the  yellow  is  often  grown  instead  of  the  white.  Dur- 
ing the  past  three  years  the  white  sweet  clover  has  been 
grown  under  various  conditions  at  this  Station  with 
good  success,  and  stock  have  eaten  it  readily.  Small 
amounts  of  the  yellow  have  been  grown  but  it  has  not 
produced  as  much  forage  as  the  white.  At  the  east  side 
of  the  Agronomy  Farm  is  an  area  of  land  consisting  of 
about  four  acres  which  receives  seepage  from  the  land 
above  and  consequently  is  too  alkaline  for  the  growing  of 
grain  crops.  According  to  records,  this  area  was  sown  to 
white  sweet  clover  in  1908.  A fair  crop  was  harvested  in 
1909  and  in  1910,  after  the  writer  took  charge,  one  and 
one-half  tons  of  cured  hay  was  produced  on  the  area  from 
one  cutting.  A heavy  frost  on  August  24th  prevented 
a second  cutting  and  no  seed  was  produced.  In  the  spring 
of  1911  no  growth  of  sw^eet  clover  appeared,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  biennial.  This  does  away  with  the 
theory  sometimes  advanced  that  sweet  clover  will  spread 
badly  w7hen  once  sown  and  becomes  a bad  weed  pest.  If 
cut  before  it  goes  to  seed  there  is  no  danger  of  its 
spreading,  and  it  makes  an  excellent  quality  of  hay  if  cut 
before  the  stems  become  woody.  These  plats  have  been 
kept  in  sweet  clover  (new  sowings  being  made  every  two 
years),  as  no  other  plants  other  than  some  of  the  native 
grasses  will  grow  on  these  plats  which  are  heavy  clay 
and  strongly  alkaline.  The  plats  are  low  and  receive 
some  seepage,  consequently  do  not  require  heavy  irriga- 
tion. The  land  received  .274  feet  of  irrigation  water  and 
.362  feet  of  rainfall,  or  a total  of  .636  feet  of  water. 

S^veet  clover  will  also  do  wTell  on  the  dry  farm.  On 


Forage  Crops 


19 


May  4,  1911,  an  area  of  two  acres  was  sown  to  sweet 
clover  on  the  Holliday  farm  in  the  dry  farm  experiments 
then  being  carried  on.  The  crop  was  sown  at  the  rate  of 
10  lbs.  per  acre.  The  plants  made  considerable  growth 
that  year  but  not  sufficient  for  cutting.  One  acre  was 
badly  covered  by  blowing  soil;  the  other  acre,  however, 
produced  3700  pounds  of  hay  the  following  year.  Sweet 
clover  can  be  grown  successfully  without  irrigation  on 
lands  too  dry  for  alfalfa. 

GRAMINEOUS  FORAGE  CROPS. 

This  group  includes  all  of  the  grasses  and  grains 


Brome  Grass  (Brosmus  Inermis). 

grown  and  cut  for  forage,  whether  fed  green  or  cured 
for  hay.  Some  of  the  grains  have  been  discussed  with 
the  legumes,  so  no  further  discussion  is  needed  here  ex- 
cept to  say  that  they  are  better  grown  in  combination 
with  legumes,  especially  field  peas,  as  in  this  way  larger 
yields  are  obtained  and  they  also  make  a better  balanced 
ration.  Oats,  barley,  and  rye  are  the  grain  plants  most 
commonly  grown  for  forage.  Experiments  with  various 
grasses  and  grass  mixtures  are  being  carried  on  to  de- 
termine those  of  most  value  for  the  pastures  and  hay. 


20  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  1 04 


Full  discussion  of  these  will  be  given  in  a future  bulletin. 
It  will  suffice  to  say  here  that  Brome  Grass  ( Bromus 
Inermis)  has  been  found  to  be  an  excellent  pasture 
grass,  forming  a very  thick  sod  after  two  or  three  years. 
It  starts  growth  very  early  in  the  spring  and  remains 
green  late  in  the  fall.  It  is  better  adapted  for  pasture 
than  it  is  for  hay,  altho  it  will  produce  a good  quantity 
of  hay  when  well  cared  for.  In  1913,  a quarter-acre 
plat  that  had  been  sown  in  1911  produced  1000  lbs.  of 
cured  hay.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  two  tons  per  acre. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FORAGE  CROPS. 

This  group  includes  such  crops  as  millets,  sorghums, 
Kaffir  corns,  etc.,  which,  altho  they  belong  to  the  Grami- 
neae,  make  rather  a group  of  themselves,  and  can  be 
grown  in  various  parts  of  the  state.  On  account  of  con- 
ditions at  this  altitude,  not  much  has  been  done  along  the 
line  of  experimentation  with  these  crops.  The  Mani- 
toba or  Hog  Millet  and  the  Siberian  Millet  do  fairly  well 
but  are  quite  easily  injured  by  frosts  and  do  not  make 
heavy  yields.  The  Kirsk  Millet,  now  being  distributed 
by  the  Government,  promises  fairly  well.  It  is  being 
tried  both  under  irrigation  and  dry  farming  conditions. 
Reports  from  sections  of  the  state  at  altitudes  not  above 
five  thousand  feet  indicate  that  most  of  the  millets,  sor- 
ghums and  kaffir  corns  can  be  successfully  grown  for 
forage  and  in  some  instances  corn,  especially  the  flint 
varieties.  Early  Amber  Sorghum,  Yellow  Milo  Maize 
and  Kirsk  Millet  are  recommended  as  the  hardiest  crops 
of  this  group. 

Rape  has  proved  a good  forage  crop  at  this  Station. 
It  is  easy  to  grow  and  produces  a large  yield  of  succu- 
lent forage,  adapted  to  hog  or  sheep  feeding.  It  is  not 
cut  but  pastured  in  the  field.  Sheep  and  hogs  like  it  and 
do  well  when  fed  on  it. 

Many  inquiries  have  come  to  this  office  concerning 
the  new  forage  plant,  Feterita.  This  is  a warm  climate 
plant  belonging  with  the  sorghums  and  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful if  it  can  be  grown  successfully  anywhere  in  Wyo- 
ming. 


Forage  Crop; 


21 


Name  of  Crop 

Year 

Area 

Date 

Sown 

Date 

Harvested 

Yield 
in  lbs. 

Tons  • 
per  A 

Field  Peas 

mo 

2 1-2 

May  10 

Sept.  10 

10,000 

2. 

Amber  Cane 

1 

May  20 

No  Crop 

Frosts 

Corn,  4 varieties 

Oats  

« 

2 

1 1-2 

May  15 
Apr.  10 

Aug.  25 

2,210 

2.21 

Sweet  Clover  

1 

1909 

Aug.  24 

3,000 

1.5 

Rape 

1-2 

Apr.  15 

Not  Cut 

10,000 

10.  est. 

1.  Oats  and  Peas 

1911 

1-2 

May  24 

Sept.  4 

,280 

.28 

Oats  and  Vetch 

1-2 

May  9 

2cutsJl  1-Sep52690 

2.69 

2.  Sweet  Clover 

1 

1909 

July  29 

2,000 

1. 

Corn,  2 varieties ... 

1-4 

May  20 

No  Crop 

Frosts 

.5 

3.  Siberian  Millet 

i€ 

1-2 

May  24 

Sept.  4 

,500 

.5 

Manitoba  Millet 

Vetch  and  Oats 

191  2 

1-4 

May  20 

Aug.  16 

,980 

1.96 

Peas  and  Emmer 

1-4 

May  20 

Aug.  16 

1,040 

2.08 

Peas  and  Oats 

11 

1-4 

May  20 

Aug.  16 

,600 

1.2 

Barley 

cc 

1-4 

May  20 

Aug.  16 

,770 

1.54 

Corn,  1 5 varieties 

** 

1-2 

May  20 

No  Orop 

Frosts 

4.  Sweet  Clover,  irrigated 

1 

1910 
May  4 
1941 

Aug.  25 

2,000 

est lton 

Sweet  Clover,  dry  farm 

I 

Aug.  20 

3,700 

1.85 

Millet* 

<• 

1- 

May  7 

No  Crop 

Frosts 

5,  Peas  and  Barley 

1913 

1 

May  4 

Aug.  27 

3,400 

1.7 

6.  Wheet  

1-2 

May  4 

Aug.  21 

1,950 

1.95 

Barley 

1 

May  7 

Aug.  21 

9,445 

4.22 

Oats  and  Peas 

1 1-2 

May  3 

Aug.  22 

11,267 

3-75 

Oats  and  Peas 

3-4 

Aug.  17 

8,915 

5.95 

Corn 

1-2 

1911 

No  Crop 

Frosts 

Brome  Grass 

1-4 

July  11 

,920 

1.80 

Field  Peas,  ensilage  

1914 

3-4 

Apr.  25 

Aug.  7‘ 

7,805 

5.2 

Alfalfa  and  Timothy,  hay  2 cut’gs 

1-5 

1911 

1.710 

4.225 

Sweet  Clover,  hay 

1 

1911 

July  1 

3,300 

1.15 

Field  Peas,  cured  hay 

3 

Apr.  28 

Aug.  4 

17,255 

2.32 

Oats  and  Peas,  cured  hay 

3 

Apr.28 

Aug.  5 

21,665 

3.22 

LIST  OF  FORAGE  CROPS. 

NOTES  ON  THE  TABLES: 

1.  Sown  on  plat  that  was  very  weedy  the  preceding  year. 
The  crop  was  largely  weeds.  This  accounts  for  the  low  yields. 
The  cats  and  peas,  however,,  cleaned  up  the  plat  and  put  it  in  excel- 
lent shape  for  the  next  year’  scrop. 

2.  This  was  the  second  year  for  the  sweet  clover  and  the 
crop  was  not  as  heavy  as  the  first  year  after  seeding. 

3.  The  millets  made  some  growth  hut  the  plat  was  very 
weedy.  A paying  crop  was  not  obtained. 

4.  This  was  the  third  year  for  the  sweet  clover.  It  self- 
seeded  to  soihe  extent  from  the  preceding  year.  It  was  cut  before 
seeding  this  year  and  the  plants  had  disappeared  entirely  the  next 

, year. 

5.  This  and  the  four  following  were  cut  and  hauled  to  the 
silo  in  the  green  stage.  Destruction  by  gophers  caused  the  small 
yield. 

6.  This  plat  was  eaten  by  gophers  which  lowered  the  yield. 
It  made  good  silage. 

Corn,  sorghum,  and  milo  maize  have  never  made  a crop. 


22  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Bulletin  No.  1 04 


CONCLUSIONS : 

Peas  and  oats  give  the  best  results  under  all  con- 
ditions for  either  hay  or  ensilage. 

Barley,  rye,  eramer  or  oats  may  be  sown  to  advan- 
tage with  peas.  For  late  sowing,  barley  is  best.  Six  to 
eight  tons  of  peas  and  oats  in  the  green  state  can  be 
raised  on  an  acre  under  the  best  conditions.  Four  to  five 
tons  per  acre  make  it  a paying  crop. 

At  altitude  below  5000  feet  corn  can  be  raised  suc- 
cessfully for  silage  or  fodder  at  least. 

White  sweet  clover  makes  a good  crop  where  alfalfa 
cannot  be  grown.  Stock  eat  it  readily.  It  will  not  be- 
come a pest  if  not  allowed  to  go  to  seed. 

Soya  beans  and  cow  peas  can  probably  be  grown 
successfully  in  the  lower  altitudes  of  the  state. 

The  vetch  may  be  substituted  for  peas  with  oats  un- 
der some  conditions  but  peas  are  usually  better  yielders. 

The  winter  vetch  (Vida  viilosa)  may  be  sown  with 
winter  rye  on  the  dry  farm  to  good  advantage. 

All  forage  crops  do  better  on  well-prepared  soil. 
Legumes  used  as  forage  crops  perform  two  offices.  They 
produce  a large  amount  of  forage  and  are  nitrogen  gath- 
erers which  enrich  the  soil. 

Other  station  reports  state  that  oats  and  peas  are  sec- 
ond in  the  value  of  corn  for  the  production  of  forage. 
One  bushel  of  peas  and  one  to  one-half  bushels  of  oats 
should  be  sown  on  an  acre. 

Some  provision  for  forage  crops  should  be  made  on 
every  farm  to  provide  against  failure  of  the  regular  hay 
crop. 

As  a heavy  growth  of  plants  is  desired  in  forage 
crops,  where  irrigation  water  can  be  used  if  conditions 
are  favorable  than  with  grain  crops.  The  crop  should 
never  be  allowed  to  suffer  for  the  want  of  water.  Two 
or  three  irrigations  during  the  growing  season  are 
usually  sufficient.  There  is  little  danger,  however,  of 
giving  a forage  crop  too  much  water. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 

BULLETIN  NO.  105 

JANUARY  1915 


The  Eradication  of  the  Sheep  Tick 


By  L.  D.  SWINGLE 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address:  Director 

Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 


Officers. 

TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B President 

0.  D.  SPALDING  - Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

Executive  Committee. 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 


Members. 

Term 

Appointed 

1908 

HON.  GIBSON  CLARK 

Expires 
1915 

1911 

Hon.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A 

1915 

1913 

HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 

1915 

1911 

...HON  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 

1917 

1911 

1913 

HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 

HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH 

1917 

1917 

1895 

1913 

HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 

HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 

1919 

1919 

1914 HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

HON.  ROSE  A.  BIRD  MALEY,  State  Superintendent  of  Public 

Instruction Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  D UNI  WAY,  Ph.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL. 


C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D '. President 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT.  A.  M.........Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

C.  D.  MOIR  Clerk 


A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S 

O.  L.  PRIEN,  M.  D.  V 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E. 

A D.  FAVILLE,  B.  S.*  

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

S.  K.  LOY,  Ph.  D 

J.  E.  MCWILLIAMS,  B.  S... 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

O.  H.  BEATH,  M.  A 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S.* 

E.  N.  ROBERTS,  B.  A 

S.  M.  FULLER,  B.  S 

♦Absent  on  leave. 


.Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

Wool  Specialist 

Veterinarian 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Chemist 

Animal  Husbandman 

Parasitologist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Chemist 

Assistant  Chemist 

Wool  Assistant 


Err^ts  * 

BUL.  105,  ERADICATION  OF  THE  SHEEP-TICK. 

Page  29,  line  1,  “objects  ’ should  read  “object.” 

Page  33,  line  27,  “quite”  should  read  “quiet.” 

Page  35,  line  10,  “immerser”  should  be  “immersed.” 

Page  36,  line  8,  “Coopers’s”  should  be  “Cooper’s.” 

Page  42,  line  14,  should  read:  “before  any  will  have  laid 

pupae.” 

Page  42,  line  17,  “dippins”  should  be  “dippings.” 

Page  46,  line  2,  under  (d),  “wark”  should  be  “worK.” 


The  Eradication  of  the  Sheep-Tick 


(By  LEROY  D.  SWINGLE.) 


In  a recent  bulletin  (No.  99)  the  results  of  my  work 
on  the  life-history  of  the  sheep-tick  (were  published. 
Those  results,  together  with  more  recent  data  obtained 
regarding  the  action  of  sheep  dips  upon  the  ticks,  serve 
as  a basis  for  determining  efficient  methods  of  eradi- 
cating this  pest. 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  all  the  ticks  on  a flock 
of  sheep  can  be  destroyed  by  any  one  of  several  sheep 
dips.  Every  one  also  knows  that  after  a few  months  the 
sheep  are  found  to  be  reinfested.  The  owner  often  at- 
tributes this  to  the  sheep’s  picking  up  stray  ticks  from 
bedding  or  vegetation  of  the  pasture.  This  error 
is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  he  does  not  distinguish 
between  the  sheep-tick  and  the  true  tick,  which  may  live 
for  a long  time  off  its  host.  The  sheep-tick  will  live  but  a 
short  time,  generally  but  three  or  four  days,  off  the  sheep 
and  is  not  prone  to  leave  its  host.  The  true  explanation 
of  reinfestation  lies  in  the  fact  that  none  of  the  sheep 
dips  are  effective  in  destroying  all  of  the  pupae  (eggs) 
present  in  the  wool  at  the  time  of  the  dipping.  And, 
therefore,  in  a few  days  after  dipping,  young  ticks  hatch 
out  and  infect  the  whole  flock. 

If  a dip  were  available  that  would  absolutely  kill  not 
only  all  of  the  ticks  but  all  the  pupae  without  injury  to 
the  sheep  or  wool,  the  problem  of  complete  eradication 
of  the  sheep-tick  would  be  easily  solved.  Yet,  though 
such  a dip  is  doubtless  not  to  be  had,  it  is  still  perfectly 


28  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  105 


possible  to  eradicate  the  tick  not  merely  from  a few 
flocks  of  sheep  but  as  well  from  the  whole  state  or  even 
the  United  States. 

In  discussing  the  eradication  of  the  sheep-tick  the 
following  important  questions  must  be  considered : 

1.  What  is  the  effect  of  sheep  dips  upon  the  pupae 
(eggs)  ? 

2.  Does  dipping  of  the  pupae  modify  their  incuba- 
tion period? 

8.  What  is  the  effect  of  various  dips  upon  the  tick? 

4.  Which  are  the  best  dips  to  use? 

5.  How  many  dippings  are  necessary,  and  when 
should  they  be  made,  in  order  to  eradicate  the  tick? 

In  solving  these  problems  it  was  not  expedient  to  try 
all  of  the  sheep  dips  that  are  on  the  market  Some  of 
the  dips  having  a good  reputation  were  used.  There  may 
be  other  dips  as  good  or  perhaps  better.  But  the  main 
object  was  to  find  a dip  that  would  certainly  kill  the  ticks 
and  accomplish  this  result  without  much  injury  to  the 
sheep  and  the  wool,  and  without  excessive  cost  and  in- 
convenience. 

In  the  experiments  to  determine  the  effect  of  dips 
upon  the  pupae  and  ticks,  the  element  of  time  was  con- 
sidered important. 

In  dipping  for  sheep-ticks  only,  it  was  considered 
impractical  to  leave  the  sheep  in  the  bath  more  than  one 
minute  unless  no  dip  could  be  found  that  would  be  effec- 
tive in  that  time.  However,  in  case  a very  long  vat  is 
used  the  sheep  would  naturally  remain  in  the  bath  more 
than  one  minute.  This  would  also  be  true  if  the  sheep 
were  being  dipped  not  only  for  ticks  but  also  for  scabies 
because  in  dipping  for  the  latter  it  is  the  practice  to 
leave  the  sheep  in  the  bath  longer  in  order  to  soak  up 
the  scabs.  Since  in  these  experiments  only  the  sheep-tick 
was  being  considered,  the  pupae  and  ticks  were  generally 
immersed  only  one  minute. 


Sheep-Tick 


29 


In  the  first  experiments  on  the  pupae  the  only  objects 
was  to  determine  whether  pupae  would  hatch  after  being 
treated  with  sheep-dips.  The  percentage  of  pupae 
killed  was  considered  in  some  of  the  later  experiments. 
The  first  four  experiments  were  carried  out  on  lambs, 
and  the  dips  used  were  Cooper’s  powder,  Zenoleum,  crude 
carbolic  acid  and  the  official  lime  and  sulphur  dip.  In 
every  case  pupae  hatched  readily.  In  the  case  of  the 
lime  and  sulphur  dip  even  the  ticks  themselves  were  not 
killed. 

Some  laboratory  tests  were  then  made  with  several 
other  dips.  In  each  case  several  pupae  were  placed  in  the 
center  of  a handful  of  wool,  which  was  then  immersed  in 
the  dip.  The  wool  was  removed  after  one  minute  and 
allowed  to  drain  and  dry,  much  as  in  the  case  of  actual 
dipping.  The  following  dips  were  tried : Chloroleum 

] :63,  Carboleum  1:100,  Cooper’s  Fluid  Dip  1:150,  Kreso 
1:75,  Chloro-naptholeum  1 :50,  Zenoleum  1:50,  and  kero- 
sene emulsion,  the  quantity  of  kerosene  being  25  per 
cent.  Many  pupae  from  each  group,  except  that  dipped 
in  kerosene,  hatched. 

It. is  therefore  seen  that  none  of  these  dips,  except 
kerosene,  will  kill  all  the  pupae.  But  kerosene  in  5 per 
cent  strength  will  not  kill  all  of  them  and  in  a higher 
percentage  it  is  impractical.  Even  Zenoleum  in  2 per 
cent,  strength  will  not  kill  all  of  the  pupae. 

In  some  other  laboratory  tests  the  relative  killing  ac- 
tion of  several  dips  on  pupae  was  considered.  At  first  no 
controls  were  kept  but  it  soon  became  apparent  that 
they  were  necessary  in  order  to  give  an  accurate  estimate 
of  the  killing  power.  From  these  experiments  the  rela- 
tive killing  action  may  be  indicated  by  the  following 
tabulation  in  which  the  strongest  is  placed  first  and  the 
weakest  last:  * 


**“Black  Leaf  40”  was  also  used  in  these  tests,  the  results 
being  represented  by  11.1  units.  It  is  claimed  that  Black  Leaf  is 
slower  in  its  action  and  hence  the  directions  demand  that  the 
sheep  be  kept  in  the  bath  two  minutes.  In  this  test  the  pupae 
were  immerser  only  one  minute. 


30  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  105 

Kreso  1:75  48.9 

Sanitary  Fluid  (Betz)  1 :200  48.1 

Zenoleum  1:100  45.8 

Crude  Carbolic  Acid  (drug  store  sample) 

1:200  41.4 

Crude  Carbolic  i^cid  (drug  store  sample) 

1 :800  and  Kerosene  1 :20  plus  1 per  cent,  soft 
soap  40.3 

Zenoleum  1:100  28.0 

Minor’s  Fluid  1 :80  28.0 

Chloroleum  1:63  23.2 

Sanitary  Fluid  (Betz)  1:100  plus  i/2  per  cent, 
hard  soap  14.0 

Crude  Carbolic  Acid  (drug  store  sample)  1 MOO 
plus  % per  cent  hard  soap  . . 12.9 


It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  variations  even  in  the 
action  of  the  same  dip  and  hence  not  much  reliance  can 
be  placed  upon  these  results  except  when  they  are  con- 
firmed by  other  experiments. 

There  are  evidently  some  unknown  factors  in- 
volved.* In  every  instance  but  one  the  pupae  of  the 
controls  began  to  hatch  before  those  that  had  been 
dipped.  This  probably  is  due  largely  to  the  cooling  action 
of  the  wet  wool  rather  than  to  the  possible  fact  that  the 
pupae  which  were  about  ready  to  hatch  were  killed  by  the 
dips.  Another  important  fact  is  that  the  controls  con- 
tinued in  every  case  to  hatch  for  several  days  after  all 
hatching  had  ceased  among  the  groups  that  had  been 
dipped.  This  means  that  all  of  the  youngest  pupae  were 
killed  by  the  dips,  and  this  conclusion  is  supported  by 
other  data.  These  experiments  indicate  that  more  than 
one  dipping  must  be  made  if  the  tick  is  to  be  eradicated. 


*Some  later  experiments  which  are  not  reported  in  this  paper 
indicate  that  there  are  certain  physical  or  chemico -physical  fac- 
tors involved  in  the  action  of  dips  upon  ticks.  Further  experi- 
mental work,  which  is  being  prosecuted  along  these  lines,  must 
be  completed  before  the  facts  can  be  presented. 


Sheep-Tick 


31 


In  using  the  life-history  as  a basis  for  determining 
when  the  last  dipping  should  be  made  in  order  to  eradi- 
cate the  tick,  it  is  necessary  to  know  whether  the  first 
dipping  lengthens  the  incubation  period  of  the  pupae 
that  are  not  killed.  Since  the  dips  will  not  kill  all  of  the 
pupae,  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  last  dipping  after  every 
pupa  has  hatched.  In  the  summer  time  the  normal  in- 
cubation period  may  reach  23  days,  so  that  the  last  dip- 
ping could  not  be  made  till  23  days  had  elapsed  after  the 
first  dipping.  But,  if  the  first  dipping  should  have  such 
effect  upon  the  pupae  as  to  delay  their  hatching,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  delay  the  second  dipping  propor- 
tionately, unless  it  can  be  shown  that  the  last  dipping, 
falling  23  days  after  the  first  dipping,  will  kill  those 
pupae  that  have  not  yet  hatched.  Experiments  show 
that  the  last  dipping  will  not  kill  such  pupae.  Therefore, 
it  is  necessary  to  know  whether  the  incubation  period  of 
pupae  is  prolonged  by  the  first  dipping. 

Several  experiments  were  made  to  determine  this 
point.  The  method  employed  was  to  collect  several 
female  ticks  which  were  ready  to  lay  their  pupae  and 
confine  them  on  a sheep  in  an  area  of  wool  which  had 
been  freed  from  pupae.  The  next  day,  the  pupae  which 
they  had  laid  during  the  night  were  collected  and  divided 
into  two  groups.  One  group  was  dipped  in  Zenoleum 
1 : 100  and  the  other  kept  as  a control.  Both  groups  were 
placed  under  exactly  the  same  conditions  either  on  a 
sheep  or  in  the  laboratory.  It  was  found  that,  if  the 
pupae  were  dipped  before  they  were  about  four  days  old 
they  were  Idled,  instead  of  the  incubation  period  being 
prolonged.  But  when  dipping  was  delayed  four  days, 
only  part  of  the  pupae  were  killed.  In  one  of  the  experi- 
ments there  was  indication  that  the  period  might 
be  prolonged  four  days.  But  since  the  pupae  that  are 
less  than  four  days  old  are  killed  by  the  dip,  a prolonga- 
tion to  the  extent  of  four  days  of  the  incubation  period 
of  pupae  over  four  days  old  does  not  prevent  their 
hatching  within  23  days  after  the  first  dipping,  altho 
their  whole  incubation  period  might  reach  27  days.  And 
so  we  conclude  that  the  possibility  of  a prolongation  of 


32  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  103 


the  incubation  period  by  the  first  dipping  need  not  be 
considered  in  determining  when  the  last  dipping  should 
be  made. 

The  third  question  for  consideration  is : 

“What  is  the  effect  of  the  various  dippings  upon  the 
ticks?” 


In  testing  the  action  of  dips  upon  ticks  it  was  neces- 
sary to  divide  the  dips  into  two  groups,  namely,  those 
whose  action  is  immediate  because  they  are  absorbed, 
and  those  whose  action  is  more  or  less  remote,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  they  are  but  slightly  absorbed,  their  killing 
power  being  due  largely  to  their  being  ingested.  The 
coal  tar  and  cresol  dips  and  “Black  Leaf  40”  belong  to 
the  first  group  and  Cooper’s  Powder  Dip  to  the  second. 
The  first  group  admit  of  laboratory  tests,  while  the  sec- 
ond group  had  to  be  tested  by  actual  dipping  experi- 
ments. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  determine  the  relative  effects 
of  different  dips  upon  the  ticks  than  one  would  antici- 
pate. The  ticks  may  be  stupefied  so  that  they  are  appar- 
ently dead.  But  if  they  are  removed  from  contact  with 
the  dip  they  may  revive.  The  matter  of  time  is  an  im- 
portant factor  to  be  considered  in  determining  the  kill- 
ing power  of  a dip.  Generally  it  would  not  appear  prac- 
tical in  dipping  a large  flock  of  sheep  to  leave  them  in 
the  vat  over  a minute,  except,  as  stated  before,  when  the 
vat  is  very  long  so  that  the  movement  of  the  sheep  needs 
not  be  retarded,  or  when  the  sheep  are  being  dipped  for 
scab  also.  And  so  in  testing  the  dips  the  ticks  were  im- 
mersed only  one  minute.  It  is  true  that  according  to 
directions  with  some  dips  the  sheep  should  be  left  in  as 
long  as  two  minutes.  But  generally  in  comparing  such 
dips  I left  the  ticks  in  only  one  minute,  the  same  as  with 
other  dips.  It  might  also  be  held  that  it  would  not  be 
fair  to  compare  the  dips  without  using  them  in  uniform 
strength  even  though  directions  with  one  dip  may  de- 
mand that  it  be  used  in  solution  five  times  as  strong  as 


Sheep-Tick 


33 


another.  But  this  is  an  entirety  different  question.  For 
example,  if  “Black  Leaf  40’”  were  to  be  used  in  a dilution 
of  1 :50  as  Kreso  is  used,  it  would  probably  kill  the  sheep 
and  would  cost  about  twenty  times  as  much.  It  would 
without  question  be  stronger  than  Kreso  and  would  also 
be  much  stronger  than  would  be  necessary.  We  see, 
therefore,  that  there  are  other  factors  such  as  the  effect 
upon  the  sheep  and  the  cost  of  the  dip  that  are  involved 
when  the  strength  of  the  dip  is  considered. 

At  first  it  appeared  reasonable  that  the  killing 
power  and  hence  the  relative  value  of  a dip  could  be  de- 
termined by  holding  ticks  under  the  dip  and  noting  the 
time  required  for  all  movements  to  cease.  It  is  plain  that 
in  the  case  of  ticks  external  movement  is  the  only  in- 
dication of  life,  or  at  least  the  only  practical  indication 
that  could  be  used  in  these  experiments.  Yet  this 
sign  is  not  entirety  satisfactory  inasmuch  as  all  ex- 
ternal movements  may  cease  for  a long  period  while 
the  tick  is  under  the  influence  of  the  drug,  and 
then  return  when  the  drug  is  removed,  indicating,  of 
course,  that  the  tick  was  not  quite  dead.  Still  in  the 
absence  of  any  more  practical  and  fundamental  sign  of 
life,  this  one  had  to  be  used.  It  was  found  best  not  to 
depend  upon  the  cessation  of  voluntary  movements,  but 
to  determine  when  artificial  stimuli  would  no  longer 
evoke  movements.  This  was  necessary  because  ticks 
may  become  quite  spontaneously  unless  irritated. 

The  dips  used  in  the  laboratory  tests  on  ticks  were 
(1)  Zenoleum;  (2)  Chloroleum;  (3)  Chloro-Naptho- 
leum;  (4)  Kreso;  (5)  Minor’s  Fluid;  (6)  Sanitary 
Fluid*;  (7)  Pyxol**;  (8)  Crude  Carbolic  Acid;  (9) 
Carbolic  Acid : (10)  B.  & C.  Cresol;  (11)  Cooper’s  Fluid 
Dip  (Cresol)  ; (12)  “Black  Leaf  40.”  The  first  eight 
appear  to  be  very  similar  coal-tar  compounds  and  when 
mixed  with  water  make  a white,  milky  fluid.  Crude  car- 


*Sanitary  Fluid  may  be  obtained  from  the  F.  S.  Betz  Co., 
Hammond,  Indiana. 

**Pyxol  is  put  out  by  the  Barrett  Manufacturing  Co.,  17  Bat- 
tery Place,  New  York  City. 


34  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  105 


bolic  acid  will  not  mix  with  water  without  the  addition 
of  soap  and  if  the  water  is  hard,  a softener.  Tests  show 
that  the  first  five  dips  when  used  according  to  direc- 
tions are  very  effective  killers  of  sheep-ticks.  Betz’s 
Sanitary  Fluid  and  Pyxol  have  not  been  advertised  or 
used  as  sheep-dips  and  so  no  directions  regarding  their 
use  as  such  accompany  them.  Experiments  indicate  that 
Sanitary  Fluid  in  the  proportion  of  1:100  and  Pyxol 
1 :200  are  very  effective.  There  is  evidence  that  Pyxol 
is  much  more  poisonous  to  sheep-ticks  than  carbolic 
acid,  and  it  need  not  be  used  in  greater  strength  than 
1 :200.  The  best  crude  carbolic  acid,  which  was  tested,  is 
the  Denver  Fire  Clay  Company’s  (50-60  per  cent,  quality 
containing  napthalene) . This,  used  in  the  proportion  of 
1 :200,  with  % Per  cent.  soap  and  Vs  per  cent,  sal 
soda,  is  a very  effective  dip.  I regard  the  action  of  B.  & 
C.  Cresol  and  Cooper’s  Fluid  (Cresol),  when  used  in  the 
proportions  called  for  by  the  directions,  as  less  certain 
than  some  of  the  coal  tar  compounds.  They  were  not 
tried  in  actual  dipping  experiments.  They  may  possibly 
kill  all  the  ticks,  but  I believe  with  less  margin  to  spare 
than  is  the  case  with  the  best  coal-tar  dips  when  used  in 
the  strength  indicated  by  their  directions.  “Black  Leaf 
40”  proved  inferior  to  the  coal-tar  dips  in  the  laboratory 
tests,  even  when  used  according  to  directions,  which  call 
for  the  conditions  that  the  ticks  remain  in  the  bath  2 
minutes,  and  the  bath  be  of  100  to  105  degrees.  Similar 
results  were  obtained  by  two  actual  dippings,  but  in  one 
of  the  tests  the  dip  was  used  cold  and  the  sheep  were 
not  left  in  it  longer  than  in  the  case  of  Zenolum  (prob- 
ably one  minute) . 

It  is  worth  while  to  mention  in  detail  some  of  the 
tests  that  were  made  in  the  laboratory.  I will  select 
Pyxol  and  Cooper’s  Fluid  Dip.  According  to  directions 
the  latter  is  to  be  used  in  the  strength  of  1 :200.  At  first 
Pyxol  was  used  in  the  ratio  of  1 : 150.  Ticks  were  placed 
in  the  center  of  a handful  of  wool  which  was  immersed 
in  the  Pyxol  bath  for  one  minute.  It  was  then  removed 
and  allowed  to  drain  for  five  minutes.  The  ticks  were 
left  undisturbed  in  the  wet  wool.  These  conditions 
simulated  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  actual  dipping. 


Sheep-Tick 


35 


Eighteen  minutes  after  the  wool  was  immersed  the  ticks 
were  examined.  Only  one  showed  voluntary  movements. 
Twleve  minutes  later  none  showed  voluntary  movements 
and  a minute  later  only  one  showed  movements  under 
irritation  and  that  almost  imperceptible.  Another  group 
of  ticks  were  similarly  treated  with  Cooper’s  Fluid  1 :200. 
While  the  wool  was  draining  some  of  the  ticks  crawled 
out  on  the  surface  of  the  wool.  They  were  placed  back 
in  the  center.  Eighteen  minutes  after  the  wool  was 
immerser  it  was  opened  and  the  ticks  were  ex- 
amined. Four  of  them  showed  voluntary  movements. 
Fifteen  minutes  later  one  was  very  irritable*  and  five 
others  showed  slight  response  under  stimulation.  These 
facts  indicate  that  Cooper’s  Fluid  1 :200  is  inferior  to 
Pyxol  1:150. 

A comparison  exactly  like  the  above  was  made  be- 
tween Pyxol  1 :200  and  Cooper’s  Fluid.  In  the  case  of 
Pyxol,  fifteen  minutes  after  dipping  began  no  voluntary 
movements  were  present.  Twenty  minutes  later  practi- 
ally  no  response  could  be  evoked  by  stimulation.  In  the 
case  of  Cooper’s  Fluid,  sixteen  minutes  after  dipping 
began  six  of  the  ticks  were  found  crawling  in  the  wool. 
Nineteen  minutes  later  voluntary  movements  were  still 
present  in  several.  This  indicates  that  Pyxol  1 :200  is 
superior  to  Cooper’s  Fluid  1 :200 

The  above  results  were  confirmed  by  tests  of  a dif- 
ferent nature.  The  ticks  were  divided  into  groups  of  ten 
each.  The  groups  were  immersed  for  varing  lengths  of 
time  in  the  dips  and  then  removed  to  open  boxes.  In  the 
first  experiment  one  group  was  immersed  for  two  min- 
utes in  Pyxol  1:150,  and  another  for  the  same  time  in 
Cooper’s  Fluid  1 :200.  In  the  former  case  only  one 
showed  voluntary  movements  100  minutes  after  dipping, 
while  in  the  latter  case  all  were  much  more  lively.  Six 
hours  after  they  were  dipped,  the  first  group  showed 
very  slight  movements  under  irritation,  while  the  latter 
group  were  as  lively  as  if  they  had  not  been  dipped.. 
Twelve  hours  later  those  dipped  in  Pyxol  were  all  dead, 
while  those  dipped  in  Cooper’s  Fluid  were  as  lively  as 
ever.  A similar  comparison  was  made  between  Pyxol 


36  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bnlletin  No.  103 


1 :200  and  Cooper’s  Fluid  1 :200.  The  ticks  were  dipped 
for  eight  minutes  in  each  case.  Four  hours  after  dipping 
there  were  no  movements  under  irritation  in  either 
group.  Tweleve  hours  later  those  dipped  in  Cooper’s 
Fluid  had  revived  and  become  very  active,  while  those 
from  Pyxol  were  all  dead.  I will  not  record  the  remain- 
ing experiments  but  only  add  that  they  confirmed  these 
results,  namely,  that  Pyxol  1 :200  is  superior  to  Coopers’s 
Fluid  1:200. 

In  order  to  determine  the  value  of  Cooper’s  Powder 
Dip,  which  is  an  insoluble  arsenic  compound,  actual 
dipping  experiments  were  made.  It  was  found  that  one 
dipping  with  it  would  come  nearer  to  destroying  the  ticks 
than  one  dipping  with  Zenoleum.  Yet  the  fact  that  one 
female  tick  and  two  live  pupae  were  found  on  one  of  the 
lambs  four  months  after  the  dipping  had  taken  place, 
would  indicate  that  one  dipping  cannot  be  relied  upon  to 
absolutely  eradicate  the  ticks.  That  ticks  may  be  found 
on  the  lambs  for  a month  after  the  dipping  is  not  an  in- 
dication that  the  dip  is  not  effective,  for  the  pupae  may 
be  hatching  for  three  weeks  or  more  after  the  dipping 
and  several  days  may  elapse  before  they  eat  enough  poi- 
son to  kill  them.  Sufficient  powder  remains  in  the  wool 
to  kill  most  of  the  ticks,  as  was  shown  by  the  following 
experiment. 

A sheep  having  wool  about  two  inches  long  was 
dipped  according  to  directions  in  Cooper’s  Powder  and 
allowed  to  dry  for  three  days.  Then  fifty  ticks  were 
placed  in  the  wool.  The  following  day  most  of  the  ticks 
were  gone.  But  some  of  them  were  still  alive  and  others 
were  found  dead  in  the  wool.  After  about  three  days  no 
live  ticks  could  be  found.  Then  fifty  more  live  ticks  were 
placed  on  the  sheep.  The  same  conditions  were  repeated. 
This  sheep  was  later  turned  in  with  infested  sheep  and 
remained  comparatively  free  from  ticks  for  some  time. 

On  June  21st,  a flock  containing  75  sheep  and  their 
lambs  were  dipped  according  to  directions  in  Cooper’s 
Powder.  The  sheep  had  been  sheared  about  a month 
earlier.  On  July  29th  two  or  three  ticks  could  readily  be 


Sheep-Tick 


37 


found  on  a lamb,  but  none  could  be  found  on  the  sheep. 
On  this  date  they  were  dipped  again  in  Cooper’s  Powder. 
A month  later  no  ticks  could  be  found.  On  January  5th, 
about  6V2  months  after  the  first  dipping,  no  ticks  were 
present. 

On  June  21st,  another  group  containing  17  sheep 
with  long  wool  and  13  lambs  with  very  short  wool  were 
dipped  in  the  same  Cooper's  Powder  mixture  that  was 
used  in  the  first  dipping  of  the  preceding  experiment. 
Thirty-eight  days  after  the  first  dipping,  this  group  was 
dipped  again.  After  dipping  the  preceding  group  in 
Cooper’s  Powder  there  remained  250  gallons  of  dip  in 
the  vat.  To  this  were  added  two  gallons  of  Zenoleum. 
In  this  mixture,  the  group  were  dipped.  Thus,  the  slow 
but  prolonged  action  of  Cooper’s  Powder  was  combined 
with  the  rapid  killing  action  of  Zenoleum.  Frequent  ex- 
aminations during  the  six  subsequent  months  failed  to 
reveal  any  ticks. 

I have  seen  large  flocks  of  sheep  practically,  if  not 
entirely,  freed  from  ticks  by  a yearly  dipping  in  Cooper’s 
Powder  Dip.  The  shearers  testified  that  they  did  not 
find  a tick.  The  conclusion  is  justifiable  that  two  dip- 
pings with  this  preparation  is  certain  to  eradicate  the 
ticks  absolutely.  There  is  evidence  that  one  dipping  can- 
not be  depended  upon  to  eradicate  them.  No  chances 
should  be  risked  and  so  a margin  of  safety  as  wide  as  is 
practical  should  be  maintained,  though  a little  extra  ex- 
pense may  be  involved.  The  expense  will  never  have  to 
be  repeated,  if  the  work  is  done  rightly  in  the  first  place. 

Some  actual  dipping  tests  were  made  with  certain 
other  dips.  On  June  15th,  three  sheep  and  five  lambs 
were  dipped  in  Chloroleum  1 :80  (the  directions  call  for 
the  proportion  1:75).  After  the  adults  were  dry  they 
were  sheared.  Twenty-eight  days  after  the  first  dipping, 
although  a hasty  examination  revealed  no  ticks,  we 
dipped  the  group  in  Chloro-naptholeum  1:75.  About 
two  months  later  and  again  in  about  six  months  they 
were  carefully  examined,  but  with  negative  results. 


38  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  103 


On  June  21st,  a group  of  27  large  wethers,  with  a 
half  year’s  growth  of  wool,  were  dipped  in  Zenoleum 
1 :100.  Thirty-one  days  later,  altho  no  ticks  were  noticed, 
they  were  dipped  with  Zenoleum  1 :100.  Six  months  later 
they  were  sheared,  but  no  ticks  were  found. 

A group  of  thirteen  sheep  (having  one  year’s  growth 
of  wool)  and  nine  lambs  were  dipped  in  the  fluid  that 
remained  after  the  wethers  were  dipped.  Ticks  were 
present  on  the  lambs  twenty-three  days  later,  and  so  they 
were  dipped  again  in  Zenoleum  1:100.  These  dippings 
destroyed  the  ticks  and  the  group  was  still  clean  six 
months  later. 

Another  group  containing  15  sheep  (with  one  year’s 
growth  of  wool)  and  14  lambs,  were  dipped  June  23rd 
in  “Black  Leaf  40”,  strength  1 :686.  The  bath  was  used 
cold.  Four  pounds  of  sal  soda  were  added  to  each  100 
gallons  of  water.  The  sheep  and  lambs  were  left  in  the 
dip  about  the  same  time  as  was  the  case  with  the  other 
dips.  On  July  1st,  ticks  were  present  on  the  lambs.  On 
the  14th  they  were  present  on  the  sheep  and  numerous 
on  the  lambs.  On  the  16th,  23  days  after  the  first  dip- 
ping, the  group  were  dipped  again  in  “Black  Leaf  40”, 
1 :686,  cold.  The  lambs  were  left  in  much  longer  this 
time.  On  July  22nd  ticks  were  present  on  the  lambs. 
Another  examination  was  made  August  22nd,  and  the 
ticks  still  being  present,  we  dipped  the  group  in  Zeno- 
leum 1:100.  These  three  dippings  destroyed  the  ticks 
and  at  the  last  examination,  about  five  months  later,  no 
ticks  could  be  found. 

We  may  now  consider  the  next  question,  “Which  is 
the  best  dip  to  use?”  Our  decision  must  take  in  account 
at  least  five  factors : (1 ) The  killing  power.  (2)  The 
effect  upon  the  sheep.  (3)  The  effect  upon  the  wool. 
(4)  The  cost.  (5)  The  ease  with  which  the  dip  can  be 
prepared.  It  is  apparent  that  some  of  these  factors  are 
more  important  than  others,  and  hence  must  be  given 
more  weight.  Of  greatest  importance  is  the  first.  We 
must  select  a dip  that  will  certainly  kill  the  ticks,  even 
though  it  might  cost  more,  require  more  effort  in  its 


Sheep  Tick 


39 


preparation,  or  even  be  more  injurious  to  the  sheep  and 
wool  than  another  dip  that  may  be  better  in  respect  to 
the  last  factors  but  will  not  kill  the  ticks.  But  between 
two  dips  that  have  equal  killing  power  we  should  choose 
the  one  that  is  best  in  respect  to  the  less  important 
points. 

Since  the  work  on  the  sheep  dips  has  not  been  ex- 
tensive enough  to  draw  sharp  comparisons  between  them, 
I will  merely  indicate  some  of  the  dips  that  when  used  as 
recommended,  will  certainly  destroy  the  ticks.  They 
are:  Chloroleum,  Chloro-naptholeum,  Kreso,  Zenoleum, 

Minor’s  Fluid,  Sanitary  Fluid  (Betz)  1 : 100,  Pyxol  1 :200, 
Crude  Carbolic  Acid  (50-60  per  cent,  quality,  Denver 
Fire  Clay  Co.)  1:200  or  1:300,  and  Cooper's  Powder 
Dip.  In  the  comparisons  between  “Black  Leaf  40”  and 
the  other  dips,  Black  Leaf  was  not  generally  used  accord- 
ing to  recommendations.  Its  effectiveness  would  un- 
doubtedly be  increased  by  such  conditions. 

In  respect  to  the  effects  upon  the  sheep  and  wool, 
and  in  respect  to  ease  of  preparation,  there  is  not  much 
difference  between  the  different  coal-tar  dips  mentioned, 
except  crude  carbolic  acid>  which  blackens  the  wool 
more  and  is  hard  to  prepare.  Therefore,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  crude  carbolic  acid,  the  only  question  to  be  con- 
sidered in  selecting  a dip  from  this  group  of  coal-tar  dips 
is  the  cost.  From  quotations  on  large  quantities  of  dips, 
I can  give  the  cost  per  one  hundred  gallons  of  mixture 
ready  for  use:  Kreso,  $1.00  to  $1.30;  Zenoleum,  90c.; 

Chloro-naptholeum,  $1.00;  Chloroleum,  1:75,  $1.13; 
Pyxol,  1:200,  75c.,  f.  o.  b.  Philadelphia;  Sanitary  Fluid 
1 :100,  75c.,  f.  o.  b.  Hammond,  Ind.  As  prices  may  change 
and  concessions  may  be  made,  the  sheepmen  should  not 
depend  upon  these  quotations.  Crude  carbolic  acid,  in- 
cluding soap  and  sal  soda,  will  cost  about  40c.  While  it 
is  much  cheaper,  still  the  trouble  of  making  it  up  stands 
in  the  way  of  its  general  use. 


40  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  105 


Cooper’s  Powder  Dip  must  be  considered  by  itself. 
It  answers  the  first  requirement.  Altho  its  action  is 
slow,  yet  it  has  the  compensating  quality  of  remaining  in 
the  wool  as  a continuous  and  active  poison.  On  account  of 
this,  one  dipping  with  it  apparently  comes  nearer  to  eradi- 
cating the  tick  than  one  dipping  with  the  coal-tar  dips. 
Regarding  its  action  on  the  sheep,  it  must  be  said  that  it 
will  take  the  skin  off  if  it  is  not  properly  used.  However, 
I have  never  seen  any  such  effects  when  it  is  used  prop- 
erly in  a swimming  vat.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
dip  contains  arsenic  which  is  very  poisonous  to  the  sheep 
and  other  animals,  so  that  proper  precautions  must  be 
exercised  against  its  being  ingested  by  the  sheep,  either 
by  drinking  the  bath  or  by  eating  material  upon  which 
they  may  have  been  allowed  to  drain.  The  latter  pos- 
sibility should  be  prevented  by  keeping  the  sheep  in  bar- 
ren pens  until  they  have  drained.  Care  must  be  exercised 
in  discarding  the  dip  that  remains  after  dipping  has  been 
finished.  If  reasonable  care  is  exercised  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  poisoning  should  result.  However,  it  must  be 
admitted  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  fact  that  the 
dip  is  highly  poisonous  to  the  higher  animals,  stands 
against  its  use,  especially  by  people  who  have  never 
been  trained  to  exercise  care  in  such  matters.  It  will  be 
objected  that  a preparation  is  worthless  as  a sheep-dip  if 
it  is  not  poisonous,  the  idea  being  that  the  ticks  will  not  be 
destroyed.  Yet  this  idea  is  not  necessarily  true,  for  it  is 
found  that  some  drugs,  such  as  coal-tar  products,  may 
be  more  poisonous  to  the  lower  animals  than  to  the 
higher.  Hence  ticks  may  be  destroyed  by  solutions  so 
weak  that  comparatively  larger  quantities  of  them  may 
be  taken  by  sheep  without  damage.  But,  the  fact  is  that 
the  so-called  non-poisonous  dips  are  really  poisonous 
even  to  sheep  and  proper  care  must  be  exercised  against 
their  being  imbibed. 

There  have  been  reported  ill  effects  upon  the  wool 
from  the  use  of  arsenic  compounds.  On  the  other  hand, 
I have  seen  prize  show-sheep  dipped  in  it.  And  besides, 
there  are  show-sheep  owners  who  prefer  it  to  the  coal- 
tar  dips,  because  they  think  it  has  less  injurious  effect 


Sheep  Tick 


41 


upon  the  wool  than  the  coal-tar  dips.  While  it  is  my 
opinion  that  there  is  little  ground  for  thinking  it  is  in- 
jurious, providing  the  dipping  is  carried  out  according 
to  directions,  yet  this  point  should  be  determined  by  care- 
ful, systematic  experimentation. 

The  cost  of  dipping  with  Cooper’s  Powder  is  about 
twice  as  great  as  with  the  coal-tar  dips.  It  is  also  harder 
to  prepare  the  dip  for  use. 

In  the  light  of  these  facts  it  is  impossible  to  decide 
whether  Cooper’s  Powder  is  preferable  to  the  coal-tar 
dips.  Both  will  do  the  work.  Yet  is  desirable  to  have 
as  wide  a margin  of  safety  as  is  possible  and  at  the  same 
time  practical.  The  fact  that  Cooper’s  Powder  will  re- 
main in  the  wool  exercising  its  killing  power  for  months 
is  a distinct  point  in  its  favor.  For  this  reason,  I would 
suggest  that  a most  effective  dip  may  be  obtained  by 
mixing  with  Cooper’s  Powder  one  of  the  coal-tar  dips  in 
about  half  or  one-quarter  the  strength  recommended  for 
their  use.  In  this  way  the  quick  action  of  the  coal-tar 
dip  is  combined  with  the  prolonged  action  of  the  arsenic 
and  a dip  ideal  in  killing  action  is  obtained.  This,  how- 
ever, increases  the  cost  considerably.  The  first  dipping 
could  be  made  with  Cooper’s  straight  or  with  a coal-tar 
dip  straight  and  the  last  with  the  combination  mentioned. 
In  this  way  the  cost  would  be  kept  down  while  the  mar- 
gin of  safety  would  remain  wide.  Still  I would  add  that 
there  is  almost  no  doubt  that  two  dippings,  either  with 
the  coal-tar  dips  or  with  Cooper’s  Powder,  will  absolutely 
destroy  the  ticks. 

The  decision  may  be  left  with  the  sheep  men,  believ- 
ing that  they  will  get  the  desired  results  whichever 
method  they  use,  provided  reasonable  care  is  exercised 
and  the  cautions  to  be  mentioned  later  are  observed. 

The  last  question  propounded  is,  “How  many  dip- 
pings are  necessary  and  when  should  they  be  made  in 
order  to  eradicate  the  sheep-tick?”  , 

It  is  certain  that  one  dipping  cannot  invariably  be 
depended  upon  to  eradicate  the  tick.  Judging  from  the 


42  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  1 05 

facts  obtained  regarding  the  normal  life-history  of  the 
tick  and  the  data  concerning  the  action  of  sheep  dips,  at 
least  three  dippings  would  be  necessary  to  make  the 
eradication  absolutely  certain  in  all  cases ; these  dippings 
to  be  made  about  fourteen  days  apart.  This  conclusion 
is  based  upon  the  facts  that  in  warm  weather  the  pupae 
require  from  19  to  23  days  to  hatch  and  a young  tick 
may  reach  sexual  maturity  and  lay  its  first  pupa  in  14 
days.  Thus  it  is  plain  that  the  second  dipping,  14  days 
after  the  first,  will  kill  any  young  tick  which  may  have 
hatched  after  the  first  dipping,  before  it  has  had  time  to 
lay  a pupa.  And  the  third  dipping  being  placed  about 
12  or  14  days  later  will  occur  after  all  the  pupae  have 
hatched  and  before  will  have  laid  pupae.  Thus  all 
the  ticks  will  certainly  be  destroyed. 

Nevertheless,  although  the  normal  life-history  in- 
dicates that  at  least  three  dippins  are  necessary  to  in- 
sure absolute  eradication,  there  are  reasons  for  believing 
that  the  same  can  be  accomplished  with  two  dippings. 
The  eradication  of  the  sheep-tick  will  be  a much  lighter 
burden  if  it  can  be  accomplished  with  two  dippings. 

As  a matter  of  fact,  the  normal  life-history  should 
not  be  used  as  a basis  for  determining  how  many  dip- 
pings are  necessary,  because  the  first  dipping  modifies 
the  normal  life-history.  The  modifications  may  be  set 
forth  as  follows:  (a)  None  of  the  pupae  hatch  for  a 

couple  of  days  after  they  are  dipped,  and  if  they  did,  they 
would  be  killed  in  the  wet  wool;  (b)  many  of  the  pupae 
are  killed  by  the  first  dipping  and  some  are  so  weakened 
that  the  young  ticks  hatching  out  never  mature.  There- 
fore, the  number  of  pupae  hatching  out  and  maturing 
in  a flock  during  the  first  two  weeks  following  the  first 
dipping  is  very  small;  (c)  since  the  number  is  small, 
the  chances  for  a female  to  become  fertilized  soon  after 
hatching  are  slight.  It  can  be  shown  that  these  con- 
ditions are  unfavorable  to  an  early  deposit  of  pupae  after 
the  first  dipping.  Since  at  least  14  days  are  required  for 
a young  tick  to  mature  and  lay  its  first  pupa  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions  where  males  and  females  are 
kept  together  in  a small  area  on  a sheep,  it-  is  highly  prob- 


Sheep  Tick 


43 


able  that  at  least,  three  weeks  would  be  required  under 
the  conditions  that  follow  the  first  dipping.  It  nas  been 
shown  that  pupae  under  four  days  of  age  are  killed  by 
dipping.  Therefore,  if  a young  tick  should  manage  to 
lay  a pupa  three  days  before  the  last  dipping  took  place, 
it  would  be  killed.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  if  the  sec- 
ond (or  last)  dipping  be  placed  (in  warm  weather)  24 
days  after  the  first,  all  ticks  will  be  destroyed. 

These  theoretical  results  are  supported  by  some 
actual  dipping  tests.  In  one  experiment  with  Zenoleum 
two  dippings  23  days  apart  eradicated  the  ticks.  In  an- 
other experiment  with  Zenoleum  two  dippings  31  days 
apart  destroyed  the  ticks.  In  a test  with  Chloroleum 
and  Chloro-naptholeum,  two  dippings  28  days  apart  were 
successful.  Two  dippings  with  Cooper’s  Powder,  38  days 
apart,  were  effective.  Likewise,  one  dipping  in  Cooper’s 
Powder  followed  in  38  days  by  a dipping  in  a combination 
of  Cooper  s Powder  and  Zenoleum  destroyed  the  ticks. 
We  conclude,  therefore,  that  during  warm  weather  the 
most  favorable  interval  between  the  first  and  second 
(last)  dipping  is  24  days.  If  the  dipping  is  done  before 
May  or  after  September  the  eradication  will  be  less  cer- 
tain and  a more  favorable  interval  would  be  26  days. 
While  the  tick  may  be  destroyed  by  two  dippings  with 
Cooper’s  Powder  38  days  apart,  yet  the  most  favorable 
interval  would  be  that  mentioned  above. 

In  regard  to  the  time  of  year  when  dipping  should 
take  place,  it  appears  that  the  early  fall  is  the  most  ac- 
ceptable. On  account  of  lambing  and  shearing  the  spring 
is  unfavorable.  It  is  bad  to  dip  just  before  lambing  or 
shearing,  or  just  after.  If  dipping  takes  place  after 
lambing  and  shearing  it  is  much  harder  to  eradicate  the 
ticks  because  of  the  short  wool  on  the  lambs  and  sheep. 
In  the  fall  the  wool  will  be  long  enough  on  both  to  hold 
sufficient  dip  to  make  the  destruction  of  the  ticks  certain. 
Therefore,  marketing  time,  say  the  month  of  September, 
is  the  most  favorable  time  for  cleaning  up  the  ticks.  It 
is  certain  that  during  this  next  September  every  sheep- 
tick  in  the  state  could  be  destroyed  so  that  in  the  follow- 
ing spring  lambs  would  not  face  a tick.  If  the  ticks  are 


44  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Siation  Bulletin  No.  105 


once  eradicated  from  a flock  of  sheep,  the  flock  will  re- 
main absolutely  free  as  long  as  they  are  not  contaminated 
by  ticky  sheep. 

The  question  of  compulsory  dipping  for  sheep-ticks 
is  a live  one  and  perhaps  ought  to  reecive  some  consid- 
eration in  this  paper.  At  this  time,  when  personal  lib- 
erty is  being  curtailed  on  every  side  by  law,  it  is  hard  to 
say  whether  dipping  for  sheep-ticks  should  be  made  com- 
pulsory. There  are  certainly  two  sides  to  the  question. 
Yet,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  in  this  case  that  the  permis- 
sion of  the  personal  liberty  of  one  sheep-owner  to  raise 
sheep-ticks  on  his  sheep  may  take  away  the  personal 
right  from  a neighbor,  or  more  correctly  several  neigh- 
bors to  maintain  their  sheep  free  from  sheep-ticks,  we 
would  at  once  say  that  compulsory  dipping  is  not  jus- 
tifiable. But  a flock  of  sheep  infested  with  sheep-ticks 
is  ever  a menace  to  the  flocks  that  have  been  freed  from 
this  pest,  and  in  a civilized  state,  it,  therefore,  becomes 
the  duty  of  the  government  out  of  justice  to  those  who 
wish  to  maintain  clean  flocks  either  to  compel  those  who 
own  infested  flocks  to  eradicate  the  pest  or  to  keep  their 
sheep  off  the  public  domain  and  away  from  clean  flocks. 

It  is  probably  true  that  the  sheep  men  are  more  apt 
to  look  at  this  question  from  the  financial  standpoint 
than  that  of  personal  liberty.  If  so,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  as  to  where  everyone  ought  to  stand.  Will  it  pay 
the  sheepmen?  Will  the  cost  of  eradicating  the  sheep- 
tick  be  as  great  or  greater  than  the  damage  done  by  the 
tick  each  year,  plus  the  expenditure  that  is  already 
being  made  every  year  in  dipping  with  only  a partial 
eradication?  As  it  is  now,  all  up-to-date  sheepmen  are 
spending  something  every  year  in  dipping  and  must  con* 
tinue  to  do  so  unless  every  owner  will  decide  voluntarily, 
or  is  compelled,  to  eradicate  the  tick  once  and  for  all 
time  from  his  flock.  If  those  who  do  not  dip  were  com- 
pelled to,  and  those  who  are  dipping  would  voluntarily 
clean  up  all  their  ticks  this  year,  the  latter  class  wTould  be 
saved  all  the  yearly  expense  of  dipping,  while  the  former 
class  would  be  gainers  also  in  escaping  the  damage  the 
sheep-tick  is  doing  in  their  flocks.  There  can  be  no  doubt 


Sheep  Tick 


45 


that  the  sheep-tick  does  more  damage  in  a year  to  a flock 
of  sheep  than  it  would  cost  to  give  the  flock  two  dippings. 
And  so  in  ten  years  the  saving  would  be  almost  ten  times 
the  cost  of  giving  the  sheep  the  two  dippings  the  first 
year;  for  they  would  not  need  dipping  again,  provided 
the  neighbors  were  compelled  to  remove  their  menace. 
The  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  the  sheep-tick  does  more 
damage  in  a year  to  a flock  of  sheep  than  the  cost  of  giv- 
ing the  flock  two  dippings.  Since  the  cost  of  eradication 
of  the  sheep-tick  is  unquestionably  less  than  the  loss  sus- 
tained on  account  of  its  presence,  and  since  history  and 
present  observation  indicate  that  there  will  be  some  care- 
less individuals  who  will  not  volunteer  to  clean  up  their 
flocks,  it  would  seem  advisable  for  the  government  to 
compel  proper  dipping.  Moreover,  the  government  would 
be  especially  justified  because  it  would  be  attempting  a 
perfectly  practical  and  possible  work.  The  task  is  differ- 
ent from  that  of  eradicating  scab  and  the  true  tick,  be- 
cause the  sheep-tick  does  not  spread  so  insidiously  and 
can  be  destroyed  much  more  easily.  The  sheep-tick  is 
not  lurking  around  in  crevices,  in  the  bedding  and  vege- 
tation as  is  the  case  with  the  scab  mite  and  the  true  tick. 
In  fact,  altho  it  is  not  advisable  to  do  so,  the  sheep  after 
being  dipped  may  be  turned  back  into  the  same  pens 
which  they  occupied  before  dipping.  In  all  those  experi- 
ments in  which  the  sheep-tick  was  eradicated,  the  sheep 
were  returned  immediately  after  dipping  to  their  old 
pens. 

And  so,  seeing  what  has  been  accomplished  by  the 
fight  against  scab,  we  are  convinced  that  the  sheep-tick 
can  be  utterly  eradicated  from  the  state  within  one  year 
after  the  work  has  been  initiated  and  systematized.  The 
ticks  having  been  once  eradicated  from  a flock,  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  owner  should  be  compelled  to  dip 
again,  unless  his  flock  should  become  re-infested.  And 
this  will  not  occur  if  they  are  kept  away  from  ticky 
sheep. 


46  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experimhnt  Station  Bulletin  No.  1 05 
Directions  for  Dipping. 


(a)  Where  a large  number  of  sheep  are  to  be 
dipped,  a swimming  vat  is  indispensable.  Directions  for 
building  a vat  may  be  obtained  from  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  The  sheep  should  be  allowed  to  swim  thru 
the  vat  and  should  be  completely  submerged  twice.  In 
case  any  extreemly  poisonous  dip,  such  as  arsenic,  is 
being  used,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  sheep  do  not 
get  under  and  swallow  it.  If  the  proper  care  is  exercised, 
there  is  no  excuse  for  sheep  becoming  poisoned.  Some 
sheepmen  object  to  dipping,  saying  that  the  loss  from 
poisoning  more  than  balances  the  gain  from  destroying 
the  tick.  Such  results  must  be  due  to  gross  carelessness. 

(b)  After  the  dipped  sheep  have  drained  well, 
they  should  be  turned  into  a yard  where  no  fodder  can 
be  contaminated  with  the  poison.  This  applies  especially 
to  arsenic  dips.  Equal  care  must  be  execised  in  the  dis- 
posal of  arsenic  dips. 

(c)  During  the  dipping  the  strength  of  the  bath 
should  be  kept  as  nearly  constant  as  possible.  Undoubt- 
edly baths,  whether  they  be  emulsions,  solutions  or  sus- 
pensions become  weaker  and  weaker  as  dipping  prog- 
resses. In  the  case  of  emulsions  and  suspensions,  drops 
and  particles  of  the  active  agents  are  filtered  out  by  the 
wool  so  that  the  bath  becomes  weaker  and  weaker.  And 
surely  even  solutions  are  weakened  by  the  grease  from 
the  wool  and  by  organic  material  (manure)  which  col- 
lects in  the  bath.  At  present  there  are  no  data  upon 
which  to  base  a rule  for  correcting  this  difficulty.  It 
may  be  said  that  the  bath  should  be  frequently  replen- 
ished. 

(d)  In  making  up  the  bath  and  in  replenishing  it, 
no  guess  wark  should  be  allowed.  The  water  and  the  dip 
should  be  carefully  measured  and  used  in  the  proper 
proportions. 


Sheep  Tick 


47 


(e)  The  dipped  sheep  should  be  kept  absolutely 
separated  from  the  undipped.  They  must  not  be  allowed 
around  the  shearing  grounds  or  to  come  in  contact  with 
shorn  fleeces,  which  contain  pupae  that  will  be  hatching 
for  a month. 

(f)  It  is  best  not  to  turn  the  dipped  sheep  back 
into  the  pen,  where  they  were  before  dipping,  within  four 
days. 


(g)  An  attendant  should  not  go  amongst  dipped 
sheep  after  being  with  the  undipped.  Ticks  might  be 
carried  on  the  clothing.  Likewise,  dogs  should  not  be 
allowed  to  go  from  undipped  to  dipped  sheep.  And 
moreover,  the  dogs  themselves  ought  to  be  dipped  along 
with  the  sheep. 

(h)  If  sheep  are  bought  or  borrowed  from  another 
flock,  they  should  be  properly  dipped  before  being  turned 
in  with  clean  sheep,  unless  proper  proof  that  they  are 
clean  can  be  secured. 

(i)  A record  should  be  kept  of  the  groups  of  sheep 
dipped  and  the  day  on  which  each  group  was  dipped,  so 
that  no  mistakes  will  be  made  regarding  the  interval 
between  dippings. 

(j)  Dipping  should  be  finished  as  soon  as  possible 
after  it  has  been  begun  so  as  not  to  have  on  hand  for  a 
long  time  any  undipped  sheep,  which  may  be  a source 
of  infection. 

If  each  person  will  do  his  part,  in  one  year  the 
sheep-tick  may  be  eradicated  from  the  state,  or  for  that 
matter,  from  the  United  States.  It  is,  therefore,  the  duty 
of  everyone,  if  for  no  reason  other  than  kindness  to  the 
sheep,  to  eradicate  the  tick  from  his  flock. 

I am  indebted  to  my  successor,  Dr.  J.  W.  Scott,  for 
inspecting  some  of  the  dipped  sheep  after  I left  the 
Experiment  Station. 


Laramie,  Wyoming 
The  Boomerang  Printing  Company 
Printers  and  Binders 
1915 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


BULLETIN  NO.  106 

JULY  1915 


I.  Cottonseed  Cake  vs.  Cold  Pressed  Cottonseed  Cake 

for  Beef  Cows. 

II.  Mixed  Grains  vs.  Cottonseed  Cake  for  Growing  Beef 

Cattle. 


By  A.  D.  FAVILLE. 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address:  Director 

Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 


Officers. 

TIMOTHY  P.  BURKE,  LL.  B President 

C.  D.  SPALDING  Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

Executive  Committee. 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 


Members. 


Term 


Appointed  Expires 

1911... HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH 191? 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911 HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A 1921 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915  HON.  J.  M.  CAREY 1921 

EDITH  K.  O.  CLARK,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DU  NT  WAY,  Ph.  D.,  L.  L.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL. 

C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D . President 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT.  A.  M Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

C.  D.  MOlR  Clerk 


A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S ,... 

O.  L.  PRIEN,  M.  D.  V 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E. 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,  M.  S 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

S.  K.  LOY,  Ph.  D 

J.  E.  MCWILLIAMS,  B.  S... 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

KARL  STEIR,  M.  A 

O.  H.  BEATH,  M.  A 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S 

E.  N.  ROBERTS,  B.  A 


Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

Wool  Specialist 

Veterinarian 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Aanimal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Chemist 

Animal  Husbandman 

Parasitologist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Chemist 

Assistant  Chemist 


PART  I.  COTTONSEED  CAKE  .VS.  COLD  PRESSED 
COTTONSEED  CAKE  FOR  BEEF  COWS. 

PART  II.  MIXED  GRAIN  VS.  COTTONSEED  CAKE 
FOR  GROWING  BEEF  CATTLE. 


PART  I. 

Introduction. 

Within  the  last  few  years  cottonseed  products  have 
come  into  common  use  thruout  many  parts  of  Wyoming 
and  the  question  is  often  raised  as  to  the  relative  merits 
of  these  stock  concentrates.  The  two  bi-products,  a 
test  of  which  is  reported  in  the  following  pages, 
find  many  buyers  among  both  cattle  and  sheepmen. 
Cottonseed  cake  is  the  residue  of  the  cottonseed  kernel 
after  the  hull  has  been  removed  and  the  oil  extracted. 
When  ground  it  is  known  as  cottonseed  meal.  “Cold- 
pressed  cottonseed  cake  is  produced  by  subjecting  the 
entire  uncrushed,  unheated  seed  to  great  pressure.  In 
the  residual  cake  there  is  a larger  proportion  of  hull  to 
meal  than  in  normal  cake  with  a correspondingly  lower 
feeding  value.”* 

A study  of  the  following  composition  table  brings 
out  the  difference  in  the  two  products : 


*Henry’s  Feeds  & Feeding. 


4 Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  1 06 


TABLE  “A.”  ANALYSIS  OF  FEEDS.* 

Percentage  composition,  air-dry  substance. 


FEED 

■\ 

Water:  Ash: 

1 

Crude 

protein: 

Crude 
fiber : 

Nitrogen 

free 

extract: 

Ether 
extract : 

Cottonseed  cake 

7.66  6.22 

41.38 

11.69 

26.72 

6.33 

Cottonseed  cake 

cold-pressed 

7.68  | 4.43 

25.39 

27.79 

29.01 

5.70 

Cottonseed  cake  runs  high  in  crude  protein  and  low 
in  fiber,  while  the  cold-pressed  cake  is  much  lower  in 
protein  and  higher  in  fiber. 

Outline  of  Experiment. 

The  available  station  beef  cows,  eight  in  number, 
were  divided  as  evenly  as  possible  into  two  lots.  Lot  I. 
contained  1 Shorthorn,  2 Aberdeen  Angus,  and  1 Here- 
ford.  Lot  II.  had  1 Shorthorn,  2 Herefords,  and  1 Angus. 
Difficulty  was  experienced  in  arranging  satisfactory 
groups  due  to  the  fact  that  a number  of  cows  were  due 
to  freshen  shortly  after  it  was  planned  to  begin  experi- 
ment. Some  of  these  animals  were  not  included  in  the 
lots  while  others  were  dropped  out  at  the  end  of  six  to 
fourteen  weeks.  Individual  weights  and  records  were 
kept  in  all  cases. 

An  analysis  of  the  cottonseed  products  has  already 
been  given.  Native  hay  of  good  quality  was  fed.  It  was 
obtained  near  Laramie  (from  the  Greaser  ranch)  and 
was  very  similar  to  that  obtained  in  previous  years. 
The  cows  were  kept  in  a comfortable  barn  at  night  and 
turned  out  during  the  warmer  part  of  the  day.  Both  lots 
were  run  together  during  the  time  they  were  5ut  of 
doors. 


Analysis  by  F.  E.  Hepner. 


Cottonseed  Cake  vs.  Mixed  Grains 


5 


RESULTS. 

Table  “B”  shows  the  initial  weights  and  the  gains 
made  by  the  cows  in  each  lot,  also  the  length  of  time  they 
were  on  experiment. 

TABLE  “B.”  WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS. 


LOT  I. 
Coid-pressed 
cottonseed  cake 

Weight  at 
beginning 
lbs. 

Weight  at 
close 
lbs. 

Gain 

lbs. 

Weeks 

on 

experiment 

Shorthorn  

1226 

1285 

59 

16 

Aberdeen  Angus 

1091 

1165 

74 

12 

Aberdeen  Angus 

981 

1090 

109 

16 

Hereford  

1515 

1540 

25 

6 * 

Total  

813 

5080 

267 

50 

LOT  II. 

Cottonseed  cake. 

Shorthorn  

1327 

1345 

18 

16 

Hereford  

1251 

1335 

84 

16 

Hereford  

950 

1070 

120 

16 

Aberdeen  Angus 

1150 

1246 

96 

14 

Total  

4678 

4996 

318 

62 

♦This  cow  aborted. 


Animals  in  Lot  I.  averaged  heavier  tho,  as  was  pre- 
viously stated,  divisions  were  made  as  carefully  as  pos- 
sible and  from  the  standpoint  of  the  individuals  compos- 
ing them  it  appeared  to  be  a fair  arrangement. 

The  lot  on  cottonseed  cake  made  the  heavier  gains 
but  the  cows  in  the  group  were  on  experiment  longer  (12 
weeks)  than  were  those  getting  cold-pressed  cottonseed. 


6 Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  106 


Taking  the  total  gain  of  each  lot  and  dividing  by  the 
total  number  of  weeks  on  experiment  gives  the  average 
weekly  gain  each  animal  made  for  the  whole  period. 

Lot  I.  (Cold-pressed  Cottonseed  Cake)  Average 
gain  per  cow  per  week,  5.34  lbs. 

Lot  II.  (Cottonseed  Cake)  Average  gain  per  cow 
per  week,  5.13  lbs. 

In  other  words  the  animals  in  Lot  I.  made  an  aver- 
age gain  of  5.34  lbs.  per  week  during  the  time  they  were 
on  experiment  while  those  in  Lot  II.  put  on  5.13  lbs.  per 
week  during  the  time  they  were  tested. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  gains  were  practically  the 
same  with  both  lots. 

What  were  the  feed  requirements  that  produced 
these  gains?  Table  “C”  furnishes  information  on  this 
point. 


TABLE  “C  ” TOTAL  FEED  REQUIREMENTS. 


LOT  I. 
Cold-pressed 
cottonseed  cake 

Hay  fed 
lbs. 

Waste  hay 

lbs. 

Grain  fed 

lbs. 

Weeks  on 
experiment 

Shorthorn  

2030 

36.5 

334.5 

16 

Aberdeen  Angus 

1475 

5.5 

250.5 

12 

Aberdeen  Angus 

2035 

16.0 

334.5 

16 

Hereford  

739 

5.0 

124.5 

6 

LOT  II. 

Cottonseed  cake. 

Shorthorn  

2035 

13.5 

250.5 

16 

Hereford  

2125 

19.0 

250.5 

16 

Hereford  

2035 

10.0 

250.5 

16 

Aberdeen  Angus 

j 1755 

21.0 

222.5 

14 

Cottonseed  Cake  vs.  Mixed  Grains 


7 


The  weekly  ration  per  cow  per  week  during  the  time 
the  animals  were  on  experiment  works  out  as  follows : 


LOT  I. 

Pounds  native  hay  per  week.... 125.6 

Pounds  cold-pressed  cottonseed  cake  per  week 21. 

LOT  II. 

Pounds  native  hay  per  week  ...128.2 

Pounds  cottonseed  cake  per  week 15.7 


The  hay  ration  was  practically  the  same  for  both  lots 
and  the  amount  left  was  extremely  small.  Lot  I.  received 
three  pounds  of  cold-pressed  cake  per  day  while  Lot  II. 
received  about  two  and  four-tenths  pounds. 

In  round  numbers  two  and  four-tenths  pounds  of  cot- 
tonseed cake  such  as  was  used  in  this  trial,  when  fed  with 
native  hay,  gave  practically  the  same  results  as  three 
pounds  of  the  cold-pressed  cake.  This  seems  to  agree 
with  the  results  one  would  expect  from  a study  of  the 
analysis  of  the  two  feeds. 

With  these  facts  in  mind  and  knowing  local  prices 
it  becomes  an  easy  matter  to  compare  the  concentrates 
as  to  their  feeding  value. 

PART  II. 

MIXED  GRAIN  VS.  COTTONSEED  CAKE  FOR 
GROWING  BEEF  CATTLE. 

Introduction. 

Winter  rations  for  Wyoming  young  stock  are  often 
composed  largely  of  native  hay,  a small  grain  allowance 
being  occasionally  fed  as  a supplement  to  this  roughage. 
What  available  grains  are  most  satisfactory  for  young 
beef  stock  when  native  hay  is  utilized?  As  was  stated  in 
Part  I.  cottonseed  products  find  extensive  use  in  many 
parts  of  the  state.  The  cake  is  easily  handled  and  cat- 
tle will  waste  very  little  even  when  fed  directly  from 
the  ground.  Mill  run  bran  and  corn  are  both  staples 
thruout  large  areas  of  the  West.  How  do  these  concen- 
trates compare  when  fed  with  our  western  native  hay? 


8 Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  1 06 

Outline  of  Experiment. 

The  cattle  used  in  this  experiment  were  heifers  kept 
in  the  college  herd.  Each  of  the  two  lots  consisted  of  two 
Aberdeen  Angus  and  two  Polled  Herefords..  Lot  I.  aver- 
aged ten  months  and  eight  days  in  age  while  Lot  II.  aver- 
aged nine  months  and  twenty-nine  days.  The  prelimi- 
nary feeds  were  the  same  in  all  cases  and  consisted  of  a 
mixture  of  the  three  concentrates  tested  later.  Individ- 
ual records  were  kept  and  every  attempt  was  made  to 
have  the  two  lots  as  uniform  as  possible.  Both  the  ini- 
tial and  final  weights  represented  an  average  of  the 
weights  for  three  successive  days.  Single  weighings 
were  taken  every  two  weeks.  The  feeding  period  lasted 
141  days. 

TABLE  “A.”  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS  USED  IN 
EXPERIMENT.* 


Percentage  composition,  air-dry  substance. 


FEED. 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 

protein. 

Crude 

fiber. 

Nitrogen 

free 

extract. 

Ether 

extract. 

Corn  meal  

10.20 

1.59 

10.02 

2.67 

71.94 

3.58 

Bran** 

9.13 

5.10 

16.93 

7.33 

57.68 

3.83 

Cottonseed  cake.. 

7.51 

5.87 

40.77 

11.66 

26.19 

8.00 

-Native  hay  * *'  *.. 

6.63 

6.70 

8.86 

30.21 

45.32 

2.28 

♦Analysis  by  F.  E.  Hepner. 

**The  bran  v^as  what  is  known  as  mill  feed  or  mill  run  bran 
No  attempt  had  been  made  to  separate  the  bran  and  middlings. 
♦♦♦Figures  taken  from  previous  analysis. 


Both  lots  had  native  hay.  Lot  I.  received  a grain 
mixture  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  bran ; 
Lot  II.  ate  cottonseed  cake. 


Cottonseed  Cake  vs.  Mixed  Grains 


9 


RESULTS . 

The  weights  and  gains  of  the  individuals  in  each 
lot  are  shown  in  Table  “B.” 


TABLE  “B  ” WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS  (141  days.) 


No.  of 
animal. 

Weight  at 

Weight  at 

Total 

Breed. 

beginning 

close 

gain 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

LOT  I. 

Corn  and 
bran 

203 

Hereford 

580 

719 

139 

204 

Hereford 

758 

850 

92 

205 

Angus 

468 

620 

152 

215 

Angus 

444 

600 

156 

Average 

562.5 

697.3 

134.8 

LOT  II. 

Cottonseed 

cake 

153 

Hereford 

741 

805 

64 

206 

Hereford 

407 

508 

101 

179 

Angus 

507 

585 

78 

200 

Angus 

470 

615 

145 

Average 

531.3 

628.3 

97 

Lot  I.  receiving  corn  and  mill  run  bran  averaged  con- 
sidably  better  gains  than  did  Lot  II.  getting  the  cotton- 
seed cake.  Native  hay  was  used  rather  than  alfalfa  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  it  is  the  common  Wyoming  rough- 
age. 


The  amount  eaten  by  each  animal  during  the  feed- 


r\/v 


_ yt 


1 0 Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  1 06 


TABLE  “C.”  AVERAGE  FEED  EATEN  AND  LEFT 
(141  days.) 


Lot. 

Hay  offered 
lbs. 

Grain  offered 
lbs. 

Waste  hay 
lbs. 

Waste  grain 
lbs. 

[.  Corn  and 

bran 

1279 

564 

72 

1.6 

II.  Cottonseed 

cake  | 

1292 

. 282 

61 

30. 

One  animal  in  Lot  II.,  No.  206,  almost  always  left 
some  cake,  the  others  cleaned  theirs  up  in  good  shape. 
Hay  was  of  a quality  above  the  average,  hence  little  was 
wasted.  The  average  daily  ration  per  heifer  worked  out 
as  follows : 

Lot  I.  Hay  9.1  lbs.,  Corn  and  Bran  4.  lbs. 

Lot  II.  Hay  9.2  lbs.,  Cottonseed  Cake  2 lbs. 

The  average  weight  of  Lot  I.  for  the  period  was  630 
lbs.,  while  Lot  II.  averaged  580  pounds. 

The  animals  were  not  on  a heavy  ration  as  it  did  not 
seem  desirable  to  feed  for  extremely  rapid  growth. 

TABLE  “D.”  FEED  FOR  100  LBS.  GAIN.  (Waste 

deducted.) 


Lot. 

lbs. 

Corn 

Cottonseed 

Mill  run  bran. 

Hay 

lbs. 

cake  lbs. 

lbs. 

Lot  I. 

Corn  and  bran 

Lot  II. 

Cottonseed  cake 

896 

209 

260 

209 

1269 

It  is  to  be  expected  that  feed  requirements  for  a 
pound  of  gain  will  be  rather  high  when  native  hay  is 
used  and  the  grain  ration  is  small. 


Some  interesting  cost  figures  were  obtained  using 
prices  prevailing  in  Laramie  during  the  time  of  the  ex- 
periment. With  native  hay  at  $12.00,  corn  meal  at  $30.00, 
mill  run  bran  at  $30.00  and  cottonseed  cake  at  $35.00  per 


Cottonseed  Cake  vs.  Mixed  Grains 


1 1 

ton  it  cost  $11.64  to  put  100  pounds  gain  on  the  animals 
of  Lot  I.  and  $12.16  to  put  the  same  gain  on  those  of  Lot 
II.  Figuring  hay  at  $6.00  per  ton  instead  of  $12.00  and 
leaving  the  other  prices  the  same,  a 100  pound  gain  in 
Lot  I.  cost  $8.95  and  a corresponding  gain  in  Lot  II., 
$8.35.  With  hay  high  in  price  the  ration  used  for  Lot  I. 
proved  somewhat  cheaper  but  with  hay  low  the  cotton- 
seed ration  was  a trifle  less  expensive.  Stated  in  another 
way,  with  native  hay  high  and  concentrates  at  the  prices 
given  one  pound  of  cottonseed  cake  gave  smaller  and 
more  expensive  gains  than  two  pounds  of  a mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  mill  run  bran.  With  hay 
low  in  price  and  no  change  made  in  price  of  concentrates, 
while  the  cottonseed  ration  still  gave  the  smaller  gains, 
they  were  a trifle  less  expensive  than  were  those  obtained 
when  the  corn  and  bran  were  fed. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness 
to  Mr.  Frank  E.  Hepner,  the  Assistant  Station  Chemist, 
who  made  the  analyses  of  the  feeds  used  in  these  experi- 
ments. 


CONCLUSION. 

In  rations  for  beef  cows  two  and  four-tenths  pounds 
of  cottonseed  cake  when  fed  with  native  hay  proved  prac- 
tically equal  in  feeding  value  to  three  pounds  of  cold- 
pressed  cake. 

Page  7. 

In  growing  rations  for  beef  heifers  a ration  of  four 
pounds  of  a mixture  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  mill 
run  bran  gave  better  gains  than  did  two  pounds  of 
cottonseed  cake. 

Page  9. 

Under  certain  conditions  the  ration  in  which  the 
grain  mixture  was  used  made  the  cheaper  gains;  under 
other  conditions  the  cottonseed  ration  was  more  economi- 
cal. 


Pages  10-11. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


BULLETIN  NO.  107 

SEPTEMBER  1915 


SWINE  FEEDING 


I.  (a)  Pea  Pasture  for  Fattening  Pigs. 

(b)  Hurdling  Pea  Pasture  for  Pigs. 

II.  (a)  Alfalfa  Tea  for  Growing  Pigs. 

(b)  Corn  Meal  vs.  Barley  Meal  for  Fattening  Pigs. 

III.  (a)  Pea  Hay  vs.  Alfalfa  Hay  for  Brood  Sows. 

(b)  Alfalfa  Meal  in  Fattening  Rations  for  Sows. 


A.  D.  Faville 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address:  Director 

Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES* 


Officers, 

TIMOTHY  F,  BURKE,  LL.  B President 

C.  D.  SPALDING  Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A.  Secretary 


Executive  Committee, 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 

Members,  Term 

Appointed  Expires 

1911 ..HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH 1917 

1895.. .. HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID... 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911 HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A ......1921 

1913.. .. HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915  r HON.  J.  M.  CAREY 1921 

EDITH  K.  0.  CLARK,  State  Superintendent  of  public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D.,  L.  L.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL 

C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D President 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M.  * Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

C.  D.  MOIR : Clerk 


A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S 

O.  L.  PREIN,  M.  D.  V.  * 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.'  S.,  C.  E 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,,  M.  S 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

S.  K.  LOY,  Ph.  D 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

J.  E.  McWILLIAMS,  B.S.  * 

O.  A.  BEATH,  M.  A 

P.  T.  MEYERS,  B.  S.  A 

J.  I.  KIRKPATRICK,  D.  V.  M 

* Absent  on  leave. 


Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

...Assistant  Chemist 

Wool  Specialist 

Veterinarian 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Chemist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Parasitologist 

Animal  Husbandman 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Agronomist 

Veterinarian 


CONCLUSIONS . 


Pea,  pasture  gave  good  returns  in  fattening  ra- 
tions.   — Pages  18-19. 


Hurdling  pea  pasture  effected  a large  saving  of 
peas.  Pages  18-19. 

Pigs  that  had  been  on  pasture  previously  made  bet- 
ter gains  when  put  on  dry  feed  than  did  pigs  that 
had  had  no  pasture. — Page  20. 


Returns  from  an  acre  of  pea  pasture  were 
good Page  21. 


Cross-bred  and  pure-bred  pigs  made  practically  the 
same  gains.  Page  21. 


Alfalfa  tea  added  to  a ration  increased  gains  though 
it  did  not  appear  to  be  of  much  value.  Pages  23-24. 


Barley  meal  proved  equal  to  corn  meal  for  young  fat- 


tening pigs Page  25. 

Alfalfa  hay  gave  better  returns  in  maintenance  ra- 
tions for  brood  sows  than  did  pea  hay Page  26. 


A mixture  consisting  of  four  parts  corn  meal  and  one 
part  alfalfa  meal  proved  less  satisfactory  as  a fattening 
ration  for  brood  sows  than  did  corn  meal  alone.  Page  27. 


Ration  Experiments  With  Swine. 


INTRODUCTION . 

Pork  production  is  not  receiving  the  attention  within 
our  state  that  the  industry  merits  and  farmers  are  slow 
in  utilizing  the  pig  to  convert  their  crops  into  a concen^ 
trated,  readily  marketed,  product.  Work  along  lines  sim- 
ilar to  those  outlined  in  Bui.  96  has  been  continued  with 
the  idea  of  adding  material  to  that  already  collected  rela- 
tive to  the  possibilities  of  swine  raising  in  Wyoming,  for 
pasture  crops  and  home-grown  feeds  must  be  considered 
in  the  formulating  of  cheap  rations 

Statements  of  results  have  been  condensed  as  much 
as  possible  and  the  whole  bulletin  has  been  shortened 
with  the  idea  of  making  it  more  readable  for  the  average 
individual.  Feeding  was  done  and  records  were  kept  by 
R.  P.  Allen,  who  did  his  work  in  a careful,  painstaking 
manner. 


PART  1. 

(a)  PEA  PASTURE  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS. 

(b)  HURDLING  PEA  PASTURE  FOR  PIGS. 

OUTLINE  OF  EXPERIMENT. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  in  the  discussion  of  this  ex- 
periment to  arrange  results  under  headings  (a)  and 
(b) , as  the  tables  may  be  readily  split  up  if  so  desired. 

Twenty-one  thrifty  shoats  were  carefully  divided 
into  three  lots.  There  were  both  grade  and  pure-bred 
Duroc-Jerseys  in  each  lot;  the  grades  were  three-fourths 
Duroc  and  one-fourth  Tamworth,  all  of  the  pigs  being 
out  of  the  same  Duroc  boar.  The  10  grades  were  from 
one  litter,  while  the  others  were  from  different  sows. 
Each  lot  had  one  rather  small  animal.  Lot  I had  4 
grades  and  3 pure-breds ; Lots  II  and  III,  3 grades  and  4 
pure-breds. 


Ration  Experiments  With  Swine. 


17 


TABLE  “A.”  DIVISIONS  MADE  AND  FEED  USED. 


No.  in 

Av.  wt. 

Feed  used 

Lot. 

lot 

per  head 

Pasture 

Grain 

I. 

7 

65. 

Pea,  hurdled 

j Middlings,  1 part 
1 Corn  meal,  2 parts 

II. 

7 

67.3 

Pea,  not  hurdled 

Same  as  Lot  I. 

III. 

7 

68.4 

No  pasture 

Same  as  Lot  I. 

The  peas  were  a fair  stand.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
experiment,  October  12th,  the  vines  were  dead.  Most  of 
the  pods  were  well  filled.  The  peas  for  Lot  I were  hurdled 
off  so  that  the  pigs  had  access  to  fresh  vines  at  short  in- 
tervals. Lot  II  was  given  the  run  of  its  entire  field  and 
Lot  III  on  dry  feed  had  a yard  no  larger  than  was  needed 
for  exercise.  An  attempt  was  made  to  see  whether  it 
would  pay  to  hurdle  off  a pea  field  rather  than  to  allow 
the  pigs  to  run  at  large. 

Small  V-shaped  portable  houses  furnished  shelter 
for  the  lots  on  pasture  and  were  found  very  satisfactory. 
Severe  winter  weather  with  a good  deal  of  snow  was  ex- 
perienced before  the  close  of  the  experiment  on  Febru- 
ary 1st,  yet  the  pigs  seemed  to  suffer  little  from  the  cold. 
Whenever  there  was  a chance  for  them  to  get  out  they 
would  be  found  working  over  the  pea  vines.  Lot  I cleaned 
up  the  peas  a trifle  better,  though  Lot  II  did  its  work  well. 

Each  of  the  pasture  lots  containing  1.47  acres  fur- 
nished grazing  for  7 pigs  for  112  days,  the  pigs  being  on  a 
half  grain  ration. 

At  the  close  of  the  16  weeks  both  pea  lots  were  taken 
in  and  put  on  a full  grain  ration  similar  to  that  received 
by  Lot  III.  This  was  done  with  the  idea  of  determining 
the  residual  effect  of  the  pastures. 

An  analysis  of  the  feeds  used  in  all  experiments  will 
be  found  in  the  back  of  this  bulletin. 


IS  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  107 

RESULTS . 

Lot  I on  grain  and  pea  pasture,  hurdled. 

Lot  II  on  grain  and  pea  pasture,  not  hurdled. 

Lot  III  on  grain  alone. 

Table  B shows  the  weights  and  gains  of  the  pigs  dur- 
ing the  16  weeks  that  Lots  I and  II  were  on  pasture. 

TABLE  “B.”  AVERAGE  WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS  OF 


PIGS.  (112  DAYS). 


LOT 

Av.  wt.  at 
beginning- 
lbs. 

Av.  wt. 
at  close 
lbs. 

Av.  gain 
lbs. 

Average 
daily  gain 
lbs. 

I.  Peas  hurdled 

65. 

174. 

109. 

.97 

If.  Peas,  not  hurdled 

67.3 

157.3 

90. 

.80 

III.  No  peas 

68.4 

156.9 

88.5 

.79 

Lots  I and  II,  receiving  pea  pasture  and  half  the 
grain  ration  given  Lot  III,  made  better  gains.  In  compar- 
ing the  first  two  lots  we  found  that  hurdling  the  peas  ap- 
parently gave  much  better  results. 


TABLE  “C”  TOTAL  AND  DAILY  GRAIN  RATION. 
(112  DAYS). 


LOT 

Corn  2 parts 

Middlings  1 part 

Total  grain 
per  head 
lbs. 

Daily  grain 
per  head 
lbs. 

I.  Peas,  hurdled 

272. 

2.4 

II.  Peas,  not  hurdled 

272. 

2.4 

III.  No  Peas 

544. 

4.8 

The  average  weight  of  the  pigs  was  approximately 
115  pounds.  The  plan  followed  was  to  keep  Lot  III  eat- 
ing as  much  as  possible  while  the  other  two  lots  received 
one-half  the  amount  Lot  III  consumed. 


Ration  Experiments  With  Swink, 


!§* 

During  the  worst  of  the  weather  the  pigs  on  pasture 
did  very  little  foraging,  hence  gains  were  probably  some- 
what slower  and  pasture  returns  not  quite  as  large  as  they 
would  have  been  under  milder  climatic  conditions. 


TABLE  “D.”  GRAIN  FOR  100  POUNDS  GAIN. 


LOT 

Corn 

lbs. 

Middlings 

lbs. 

Total  grain 
lbs. 

I. 

Peas,  hurdled . 

167 

83 

250. 

11. 

Peas,  not  hurdled. ....... 

201 

101 

302. 

III. 

No  peas  ................. 

410 

205 

615. 

Both  pasture  lots  required  a much  smaller  grain  a L 
lowance  for  a given  gain  than  did  Lot  III  which  received 
only  grain. 


365  pounds  or  approximately  59%  less  grain  was  re- 
quired for  100  pounds  gain  when  pea  pasture*  hurdled* 
replaced  half  the  grain  ration. 

313  pounds  or  approximately  51%  less  grain  was  re-^ 
quired  for  100  pounds  gain  when  pea  pasture,  not  hurdled* 
replaced  half  the  grain  ration. 

Comparing  Lots  I and  II  we  find  that  52  pounds  or 
approximately  17  % less  grain  was  required  for  100 
pounds  gain  when  the  pea  pasture  Was  hurdled. 

Working  out  the  pasture  results  from  the  previous 
tables  it  will  be  found  that  1.47  acres  of  pea  pasture 
hurdled  made  a direct  saving  of  2788  pounds  of  grain  and 
1.47  acres  of  pasture  not  hurdled  saved  1970  pounds  of 
grain.  One  acre  of  hurdled  pasture  saved  1897  pounds  of 
grain  While  one  acre  of  the  pasture  not  hurdled  saved 
1340  pounds. 

Residual  pasture  effects  ' must  be  estimated  before 
complete  returns  are  given.  Results  reported  in  the  next 
section  throw  light  on  this  subject. 


20  Wyoming  Agriculturai  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  107 


RESULTS . 

Each  Lot  on  a Full  Ration  No  Pasture. 

At  the  close  of  the  pasture  experiment  Lots  I and  II 
were  brought  in  and  placed  on  a full  grain  ration  similar 
to  the  mixture  they  had  been  receiving.  Results  con- 
densed as  much  as  possible  are  shown  in  Table  E. 


TABLE  “E.”  ALL  LOTS  ON  DRY  FEEDS. 
(56  DAYS). 


LOT 

Av.  daily 
gain  per  pig 
lbs. 

Av.  daily 
grain  fper  pig 
lbs. 

Grain|  for 
100  lbs.  Igain 
lbs. 

1. 

Peas,  hurdled  prev- 
iously  

1.37 

6.75 

494 

II. 

Peas,  not  hurdled 
previously  

1.28 

6.13 

479 

III. 

No  peas  

1.04 

5.66 

546 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  both  pasture  lots  madej 
considerably  better  gains  than  did  Lot  III  which  had 
been  on  dry  feed  continuously.  That  their  appetites 
were  better  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  their  daily  grain* 
rations  were  heavier.  And  yet  taking  this  into  consid- 
eration we  find  grain  requirements  for  100  pounds  gain 
lower  with  Lots  I and  II  than  they  were  with  the  lot  that 
had  not  been  on  pasture.  The  better  showing  made  by  the 
first  two  lots  should  be  credited  to  the  residual  effect  of 
the  pasture.  Crediting  this  saving  to  the  pasture  ac- 
count of  each  lot  the  residual  saving  for  lot  1 was  278 
pounds  and  for  Lot  II  335  pounds.  The  total  amounts 
that  may  be  credited  to  the  pasture  are  as  follows : 

1.47  acres  pea  pasture  hurdled,  (Lot  1)  saved  3066 
pounds  mixed  grain. 

1.47  acres  pea  pasture  not  hurdled  (Lot  II),  saved 
2305  pounds  mixed  grain. 

Stated  with  one  acre  as  the  unit : 


Ration  Experiments  With  Swine. 


21 


Lot  I,  1 acre  saved  2086  pounds  grain. 

Lot  II,  1 acre  saved  1568  pounds  grain. 

Pea  pasture  is  certainly  a valuable  aid  in  the  produc- 
tion of  cheap  pork,  and  the  financial  returns  from  ah 
acre  are  good.*  Hurdling  the  peas  effected  a saving 
equivalent  to  518  pounds  of  grain  per  acre. 

A COMPARISON  OF  THE  GRADE  AND  PURE- 
BRED PIGS. 

The  grade  and  pure-bred  pigs  in  the  pasture  experi- 
ments, bred  and  divided  as  outlined  on  page  16,  were 
weighed  separately  thruout  the  trials.  Individual  rec- 
ords of  the  feed  eaten  were  not  kept  but  the  figures  show- 
ing weights  and  gains  may  be  of  interest. 


TABLE  “F.”  GRADE  VS.  PURE-BRED  PIGS. 


10  Cross- 
breds 

11  Pure- 
breds 

(Two  lots  on  posture.  One  lot  on  dry  feed.) 

Average  weight  when  put  on  pasture 

Average  weight  at  end  112  days 

54.2 

149.8 

78.5 

174.4 

Average  gain  

95.6 

95.9 

(All  lots  on  dry  feed.) 

Average  weight  at  end  of  next  56  days. . . 

Average  gain 

Average  total  gain,  168  days 

218.6 

68.8 

164.4 

244.3 

69.6 

165.8 

The  ten  cross-bred  pigs  divided  as  follows:  four  in 
Lot  I and  three  in  Lots  II  and  III,  gained  an  average  of 
164.4  pounds  apiece,  while  the  eleven  pure-breds,  three  of 
which  were  in  Lot  I and  four  in  each  of  the  Lots  II  and 
III,  gained  165.8  pounds  apiece.  Both  while  on  pasture 
and  on  dry  feed,  gains  made  by  the  two  classes  were  prac- 
tically the  same. 

*See  Wyo.  Bui.  96  for  additional  data. 


S£?  Wtyc mmg  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  107 

PART  II. 

(a)  ALFALFA  TEA  FOR  GROWING  PIGS . 

Outline  of  Experiment . 

Eight  late  spring  pigs,  seven  of  them  cross-breds  and 
One  pure-bred,  were  divided  as  carefully  as  possible  into? 
two  lots  of  four  each.  • The  croiss-breds  were  three-fourths 
Duroc-Jersey  and  one-fourth  Tamworth,  while  the  pure- 
bred was  a Du  roc- Jersey.  Lotllcontained  the  pure-bred. 

The  grain  ration  consisted  of  a mixture  of  one  part 
corn  meal  and  one  part  middlings.  For  Lot  I this  feed; 
was  mixed  with  water  before  feeding,  while  with  Lot  Ilf 
alfalfa  tea  replaced  the  water.  Alfalfa  tea  was  made  by 
mixing  meal  and  cold  water  together  then  allowing  the 
combination  to  stand  from  one  feeding  period  to  the  next. 
When  ready  for  use  the  water  was  strained  off  thru  two 
thicknesses  of  cheese  cloth  and  added  to  the  grain  allow- 
ance. 

An  analysis  of  the  tea  will  be  found  in  the  back  of 
the  bulletin.  About  three  pounds  of  meal  and  twenty 
pounds  of  water  was  used  in  the  preparation  of  each  feed, 
Roth  lots  had  good  shelter  and  yards  large  enough  to  fur- 
nish needed  exercise. 

The  experiment  opened  November  16th  and  was  con- 
tinued 168  days. 


TABLE  “G.”  DIVISION  MADE  AND  FEED  USED, 


t 

No.  | 
in  lot 

i 

A V.  Weight  at 
beginning,  lbs. 

Peed  Used 

LOT 

1 

i 

I part  corn  meal 
1 part  middlings 

I 

4 

36.$ 

drain  mixed  With 
Water. 

II 

4 

37.3 

Grain  mixed  with 
alfalfa  tea. 

Ration  Experiments  With  Swine. 


23 


TAELE  “H.”  WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS.  (168  days.) 


1 

LOT 

Av.  weight 
at  beginning- 
lbs. 

Av.  weight 
at  close 
lbs. 

Av.  total 
gain 
lbs. 

Av.  daily 
gain 
lbs. 

I. 

36.8 

135.0 

98.2 

.58 

II. 

37.3 

151.8 

114.5 

.68 

During  the  168  days  pigs  of  Lot  II  receiving  the  tea 
gained  a trifle  over  sixteen  pounds  apiece  more  than  Lot 
I.  It  is  a question  whether  this  would  be  enough  of  a 
gain  to  offset  the  extra  cost  and  work.  Gains  were 
rather  small  with  both  lots.  The  pigs  seemed  to  lack 
a trifle  in  appetite  and  general  thrift.  Lot  II,  getting 
the  tea,  ate  somewhat  better  and  had  noticeably  better 
coats. 


TABLE  “I.”  TOTAL  AND  DAILY  GRAIN  RATION. 

(168  days.) 


1 part  corn  meal, 

1 part  middlings 

LOT 

Total  grain 

Daily  grain 

per  head 

per  head 

lbs. 

lbs. 

I.  Grain  mixed  with  water 

547 

3.3 

II.  Grain  mixed  with  alfalfa  tea 

547 

1 

3.3 

The  average  weight  of  the  eight  pigs  during  the  time 
they  were  on  experiment  was  approximately  ninety 
pounds.  Both  lots  received  the  same  amount  of  grain 
daily  though  Lot  II  would  probably  have  eaten  a trifle 
more. 

The  grain  requirements  for  one  hundred  pounds  gain 
are  shown  in  Table  “J”. 


24  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  107 


TABLE  “J  ” GRAIN  FOR  100  POUNDS  GAIN. 


LOT 

Corn 
’ lbs. 

Middlings 

lbs. 

Total  grain 
lbs. 

I.  Grain  mixed  with  water  .... 

278.5 

278.5 

557. 

II.  Grain  mixed  with  alfalfa  tea 

239. 

239. 

478. 

Seventy-nine  pounds 

or  approximately 

14%  less 

grain  was  required  for  100  pounds  gain  when  alfalfa  tea 
was  used  in  the  ration.  The  question  comes  up  as  to' 
whether  a small  amount  of  the  meal  itself  would  not  have 
proven  equally  satisfactory.  While  the  tea  was  doubtless 
of  some  benefit,  was  it  a product  valuable  enough  to  be 
used  in  preference  to  the  alfalfa  meal  itself? 

(b)  CORN  MEAL  VS.  BARLEY  MEAL  FOR  FAT- 
TENING PIGS. 

Outline  of  Experiment. 

At  the  close  of  the  test  of  alfalfa  tea  the  eight  pig's 
used  in  the  experiment  were  divided  into  two  lots  in  such 
a way  that  both  of  the  new  lots  had  two  of  the  pigs  from 
each  old.  Lot  I averaged  146.8  pounds  in  weight  and  Lot 
II  140  pounds. 

The  grain  rations  were  made  up.  as  follows : 

Lot  I.  Corn  meal,  4 parts. 

Alfalfa  meal,  1 part. 

Lot.  II.  Barley  meal,  4 parts. 

Alfalfa  meal,  1 part. 

A condensed  statement  of  the  results  of  the  56  day 
feeding  period  is  given  in  Table  “K.” 


Ration  Experiments  With  Swine. 


25 


TABLE  “K.”  CONDENSED  RESULTS.  CORN  VS. 
BARLEY.  (56  Days). 


LOT 

Av.  daily 
gain  per  pig 
lbs. 

Av.  daily 
grain  per  pig 
lbs. 

Feed  for  100 
lbs.  gain, 
lbs. 

I.  Corn  meal.  4 

Alfalfa  meal,  1.. 

1.02 

4.9 

486 

II.  Barley  meal,  4 .. . 

Alfalfa  meal,  1 . . 

.98 

4.9 

500 

Making  allowance  for  the  fact  that  one  animal  in 
Lot  II.  was  sick  for  two  weeks,  we  are  safe  in  assuming 
that  barley  meal  was  as  satisfactory  a pig  feed  as  corn 
meal.  Weights  were  kept  of  the  sick  pig,  hence  the  as- 
sumption made  is  one  borne  out  by  figures.The  returns  as 
given  show  but  little  difference  in  the  two  concentrates. 

PART  III. 

(a)  PEA  HAY  VS.  ALFALFA  HAY  FOR  BROOD 

SOWS. 

Outline  of  Experiment. 

Six  station  brood  sows  were  devided  into  two 
lots  and  put  on  rations  planned  with  the  idea  of  testing 
out  the  value  of  alfalfa  and  pea  hay.  The  test  began 
Nov.  18th  and  was  continued  for  ninety-one  days. 


TABLE  “L.”  DIVISIONS  MADE  AND  FEED  USED. 


LOT 

No.  in  lot 

Av.  weight  at 
beginning 
lbs. 

Feed  used 

I 

3 

254 

Grain  and  alfalfa 

hay. 

II 

3 

270 

Grain  and  pea  hay. 

The  hay  was  fed  in  racks  through  the  sides  of  which 
the  pigs  could  get  their  noses.  There  was  almost  no 
waste.  The  grain  mixture  consisted  of  two  parts  of 


26  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  107 


corn  meal  and  one  part  middlings  fed  as  a slop. 

Small  gains  were  desired  as  the  pigs  were  rather  thin 
when  the  experiment  opened. 

An  analysis  of  feeds  used  will  be  found  in  the  back 
of  this  bulletin. 

Results . 


TABLE  “M  ” WEIGHTS  AND  GAINS.  (91  days.) 


LOT 

Av.  wt. 
at  beginning 
lbs. 

Av.  wt. 
at  close 
lbs. 

Av.  total 
gain, 
lbs. 

Av.  da.ly 
gain,1 
lbs. 

I Alfalfa  hay. . . 

254 

303 

49. 

.54 

II.  Pea  vine  hay. . 

270 

309 

39. 

.43 

The  average  daily  ration  per  pig  was  as  follows : 

Lot  I.  Grain  3.6  pounds,  alfalfa  hay  1.9  pounds. 

Lot  II.  Grain  3.6  pounds,  pea  hay  1.9  pounds. 

The  average  weight  of  the  pigs  for  ninety-one  days, 
was  286  pounds. 

The  nea  *ay  was  fair  in  quality  though  the  vines 
were  not  heavily  loaded  with  pods.  Both  lots  made  satis- 
factory gains  and  kept  in  good  breeding  condition.  As 
will  be  seen  by  a study  of  the  above  table,  alfalfa  hay 
proved  to  be  somewhat  better. 

The  past  year’s  work  with  maintenance  rations 
again  brings  out  the  point  that  the  Wolff-Lehmann  stand- 
ards are  too  high. 

(b)  ALFALFA  MEAL  IN  FATTENING  RATIONS 
FOR  BROOD  SOWS. 

Outline  of  Experiment. 

It  semed  wise  to  dispose  of  several  of  the  brood  sows 
so  plans  were  laid  to  test  the  value  of  alfalfa  meal  in  their 
fattening  rations.  Only  five  animals  were  available  for 
the  work  and  no  very  satisfactory  lot  divisions  could  be 
worked  out.  Lot  I.,  receiving  straight  corn  meal,  con- 
tained two  and  Lot  II.,  getting  four  parts  corn  meal  and 
one  part  alfalfal  meal,  had  three  animals.  Both  lots  were 
in  condition  to  make  rapid  gains.  Table  “N”  summarizes 
the  results  of  this  test. 


Ration  Experiments  With  Swine. 


27 


TABLE  “N”  ALFALFA  MEAL  RESULTS  SUM- 
MARIZED. (42  Days). 


Av.  daily 
gain 
lbs. 

Av.  daily 
ration 
s. 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain. 

LOT 

Corn  meal 
lbs. 

Alfalfa  meal 
lbs. 

I 

2.9 

11.9 

410 

II 

2.1 

10.2 

389. 

97 

Both  lots  made  heavy  gains  on  low  feed  require- 
ments. The  97  pounds  of  alfalfa  meal  fed  to  each  animal 
of  Lot  II.  in  producing  100  pounds  gain  replaced  21 
pounds  of  corn  meal  used  by  Lot  I. 

With  lots  as  small  and  irregular  as  were  these  it 
would  not  be  fair  to  attempt  detailed  comparisons.  In- 
dividuality is  too  strong  a factor  in  both  lots. 

A CKNO  WLEDGMENTS . 

The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness 
to  Mr.  F.  E.  Hepner  and  to  Mr.  E.  N.  Roberts,  Assistant 
Station  Chemists,  for  the  analyses  of  feed  tested  in  the 
foregoing  experiments. 

TABLE  “0.”  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITIONS  OF 

FEEDS. 


Percentage  composition  air  dry  substance 


FEED 

Water 

1 

Ash 

1 

Crude 

protein 

Crude 

fiber 

Nitrogen 

free 

extract 

Ether 

extract 

Alfalfa  meal 

7.05 

9.31 

13.28 

35.46 

33.76 

1.14 

Barley  meal 

9.93  1 

2.78 

9 37 

5.54 

70.57 

1.81 

Corn  meal. . 

10.03  | 

1.59 

10.26 

2.85 

70.88 

4.39 

Middlings. . . 

10.32 

2.11 

13.27 

2.67 

69.08 

2.55 

Alfalfa  tea. 

98. 

0.56 

.46 

0.02 

0.96 

Trace 

Alfalfa  hay 

6.14 

9.48 

16.84 

28.12 

37.13 

2.32 

Pea  hay 

6,21 

7.72 

13.56 

32.42 

37.77 

2.29 

UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


BULLETIN  NO.  108 

OCTOBER  1915 


CATTLE  FEEDING 

I.  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  in  Maintenance  Rations  for 
Steers. 

II.  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Beef  Cows. 

III.  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Growing  Cattle. 


A.  D.  Faville 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address:  Director 

Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


Digest. 


In  rations  for  steers  oat  and  pea  silage  when  fed  with 
native  hay  produced  much  heavier  and  cheaper  gains 
than  did  native  hay  alone.  Pages  86-37. 

Twenty-eight  pounds  of  silage  was  much  more  valuable 
than  10  pounds  of  native  hay  in  steer  rations.  Page  36. 

Oat  and  pea  silage  used  with  alfalfa  hay  made  a very 
satisfactory  ration  for  breeding  cows  of  the  beef  breeds. 
7 Page  37. 

Silage  added  to  a ration  of  grain  and  alfalfa  for  grow- 
ing beef  stock  gave  cheaper  gains  than  did  a grain  and 


alfalfa  ration.  Page  38. 

Silage  gave  remarkably  good  returns  when  fed  with 
alfalfa  in  rations  for  young  cattle.  Page  40. 


Cattle  Feeding  Experiments 


INTRODUCTION. 

Maintenance  and  growing  rations  are  of  more  interest 
to  most  Wyoming  cattlemen  than  are  fattening  rations. 
The  problem  confronting  stock  growers  is  one  of  find- 
ing feeds  that  will  winter  animals  through  or  carry  them 
in  times  of  storm.  Such  feeds  must  be  both  cheap  and 
satisfactory  if  they  serve  their  purpose  well.  Too  little 
effort  has  been  made  to  keep  young  breeding  stock  and 
steers  growing  during  the  winter  months.  Cattle  of  this 
class  often  lose  weight  during  cold  weather  and  depend 
on  summer  pasture  for  their  gains.  If  conditions  can  be 
altered  so  that  winter  as  well  as  summer  may  be  made 
productive  of  cheap  gains,  feeding  operations  are  sure 
to  be  more  remunerative.  Native  hay  is  extensively  util- 
ized in  carrying  stock  cattle  through  the  winter.  No 
one  will  deny  that  it  does  its  work  well ; yet  is  it  not  possi- 
ble that  the  addition  of  some  succulent  feed  like  silage 
would  greatly  improve  the  ration? 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  very  best  maintenance  rough- 
ages.  Can  silage  be  made  to  replace  part  of  the  alfalfa 
to  advantage  in  both  growing  and  maintenance  rations? 
It  is  hoped  that  experiments  outlined  on  the  following 
pages  may  throw  some  light  on  the  questions  raised. 


32  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Eulletin  No.  108 


Divisions  Made  and  Rations  Used. 

Lot  I.  (6  steers)  Native  hay. 

Lot  II.  (6steers)  Native  hay,  silage. 

Lot  III.  (4  cows)  Alfalfa,  silage. 

Lot  IV.  (4  heifers)  Grain,  alfalfa,  silage. 

Lot  V.  (4  heifers)  Grain,  alfalfa,  silage. 

Lot  VI.  (4  heifers)  Grain,  alfalfa. 

Lot  VII.  (6  heifers,  1 bullock)  Grain,  alfalfa,  silage. 

Lot  IV  was  started  with  four  heifers,  one  calved  eight 
weeks  later  and  so  returns  were  figured  on  the  three  re- 
maining animals. 

Feeds. 

The  native  hay  fed  to  Lots  I and  II  was  coarse  and  of 
poor  quality.  The  alfalfa  was  practically  all  choice.  Lots 
III  and  IV  received  second  cutting  and  the  others  first. 
Silage  though  designated  as  oats  and  peas  was  composed 
largely  of  oats.  The  peas  failed  to  make  a satisfac- 
tory growth.  Water  was  added  to  most  of  the  silage 
material  as  it  was  cut  into  the  silo  and  the  ensilage  came 
out  in  fine  shape.  Most  of  the  oats  were  fairly  well 
ripened  before  being  cut.  Small  amounts  of  barley  and 
alfalfa  were  also  ensiled  with  satisfactory  results. 

The  grain  fed  consisted  of  a mixture  of  two  parts 
mill  feed,  (bran  and  middlings  mixed),  one  part  oats 
and  one  part  corn  meal. 

An  analysis  of  feeds  used  will  be  found  at  the  back 
of  the  bulletin. 


Ration  Experiments  With  Cattle. 


33 


Price  of  Feeds. 

Where  cost  estimates  are  given  native  hay  is  figured 
at  $10  a ton,  alfalfa  at  $12  and  silage  at  $4.  Grain  is 
valued  at  $1.25  per  hundred.  Knowing  the  amounts  re- 
quired for  a given  period  it  becomes  easy  to  apply  local 
prices  when  financial  estimates  are  wanted. 

Cattle. 

The  station  is  indebted  to  Mr.  D.  0.  Herrick  for  his 
kindness  in  loaning  the  steers  and  furnishing  the  hay 
which  made  possible  experiments  I and  II.  The  animals 
were  two-year-olds,  rather  thin  but  of  fair  quality.  Two 
of  the  steers  appeared  to  be  predominately  Angus  and 
the  balance  showed  Shorthorn  or  Hereford  character- 
istics. 

The  cows  of  Lots  III  and  IV  were  part  of  the  college 
herd.  Lot  III  consisted  of  1 Shorthorn,  1 Aberdeen  An- 
gus, and  2 Polled  Herefords.  Lot  IV  was  composed  of  1 
Shorthorn,  1 Polled  Hereford,  and  2 Aberdeen  Angus. 
Heifers  in  the  last  three  lots  included  Angus,  Herefords, 
Ayrshires,  French  Canadians  and  1 Jersey.  The  bul- 
lock of  Lot  VII  was  an  Angus  sold  later  to  a local  mar- 
ket. 

Weights. 

Individual  records  with  weighings  every  two  weeks 
were  kept  for  all  the  cows  and  heifers.  Lots  I and  II 
were  weighed  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  close  of  their 
test.  The  animals  in  Lots  III,  IV,  V,  VI,  and  VII  were 
weighed  on  three  consecutive  days  at  the  opening  and 
closing  of  experiments  and  averages  of  the  three  weigh- 
ings were  taken  for  initial  and  final  weights. 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  108 


Shelter. 

The  steers  were  fed  under  a shed  and  had  the  run  of 
fair  sized  yards.  The  cows  and  young  stock  were  kept 
in  stanchions  in  the  stock  barn  and  allowed  to  run  to- 
gether in  a large  sheltered  yard  during  the  day. 

Method  of  Feeding. 

The  steers  of  Lot  I were  fed  their  hay  in  morning  and 
evening  installments.  Lots  II  and  III  received  silage  in 
the  morning  and  hay  in  the  evening.  Lot  IV  had  hay 
morning  and  evening.  The  balance  of  the  lots  received 
grain  in  the  evening  and  hay  morning  and  evening  when 
no  silage  was  fed.  When  silage  formed  part  of  the  ration 
it  took  the  place  of  the  morning  hay. 

Stock  was  cared  for  and  records  were  kept  by  W.  A. 
Berry  and  Riley  Oakes  and  credit  is  due  them  for  the 
careful  way  in  which  the  work  was  done. 

PART  L OAT  AND  PEA  SILAGE  IN  MAINTEN- 
ANCE RATIONS  FOR  STEERS. 

The  common  practice  throughout  large  areas  of  Wy- 
oming where  range  is  limited  or  snow  is  deep  in  winter 
is  to  put  the  cattle  into  feedlots  in  the  fall  and  give 
them  native  hay  during  the  cold  months.  With  good 
hay  and  satisfactory  conditions  it  is  surprising  to  see 
how  well  the  cattle  appear  in  the  spring,  especially  if 
they  are  animals  that  have  most  of  their  growth.  When 
hay  is  rather  poor  as  is  often  the  case,  gains  are  small 
and  the  question  then  arises  as  to  whether  it  would  not 
pay  to  to  supplement  the  hay  with  some  other  feed. 
Grain  is  generally  expensive  and  alfalfa  is  not  always 


Ration  Experiments  With  Cattle, 


35 


to  be  had.  Under  these  conditions  will  silage  be  of  value 
in  a native  hay  ration? 

Table  I shows  the  results  obtained  with  two-year-old 
steers  when  oat  and  pea  silage  replaced  part  of  the 
native  hay, 

TABLE  I. 


Native  hay  vs,  native  hay  and  silage  in  maintenance 
rations  for  steers . 

Jan.  17  to  March  28,  1914  (70  days.) 


] 

LOT  I. 

LOT 

II. 

Native  hay.  ' 

Native  hay,  silage. 

Avg-.  initial  weight  

1054 

lbs. 

1080 

lbs. 

Avg.  final  weight  

1096 

lbs. 

1188 

lbs. 

Gain  per  steer  

42 

lbs. 

108 

lbs. 

Avg,  daily  gain  

.60 

lbs. 

1.54 

lbs. 

Avg.  daily  feed  per  steer: 

Native  hay  .... 

25 

lbs. 

15 

lbs. 

Silage  

28 

lbs. 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain: 

Native  hay 

4167 

lbs. 

974 

lbs. 

Silage  

1818 

lbs. 

Cost  of  100  lbs.  gain  

$20.84 

$ 8.51 

Cost  of  daily  ration  per  steer 

12.5  cts. 

13.1  cts. 

The  average  gain  for  Lot  I was  only  42  pounds  per 
head  during  the  70  days  in  which  the  steers  of  Lot  II  re- 
ceiving ensilage  gained  108  pounds  apiece.  Compar- 
ing the  daily  rations  we  find  that  each  steer  of  Lot  I 
was  fed  25  pounds  of  native  hay  per  day  against  15 
pounds  for  animals  of  Lot  II. 

However,  each  steer  of  Lot  II  was  given  a daily  allow- 
ance of  28  pounds  of  ensilage  in  place  of  the  extra  10 


36  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  108 


pounds  of  hay  it  should  have  received  had  it  been  get- 
ting- a ration  similar  to  that  received  by  Lot  I.  The  na- 
tive hay  lot  received  all  the  hay  it  would  eat  while  Lot 
II  had  what  hay  it  would  clean  up  during  the  night. 

Feed  requirements  for  100  pounds  gain  ran  very  high 
with  Lot  I and  rather  low  for  Lot  II. 

The  native  hay  ration  cost  12.5  cents  a day,  while  the 
hay  and  silage  ration  cost  13.1  cents  a day.  However, 
the  ration  costing  six-tenths  of  a cent  more  increased  the 
daily  gain  nearly  one  pound  per  head.  Comparing  the 
two  lots  as  to  the  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  we  find  that 
the  combination  of  silage  and  hay  proved  much  more 
satisfactory. 

In  the  appearance  of  the  steers  and  in  the  rapidity  and 
cost  of  gains  Lot  II  had  all  the  advantage.  Couple  these 
points  with  the  fact  that  silage  fed  animals  will  show 
no  greater  shrinkage  than  will  lots  dry  fed  and  we  have 
strong  arguments  in  favor  of  the  succulent  ration. 

PART  //.  OAT  AND  PEA  SILAGE  FOR  BEEF 

COWS. 

. . _ j * . ; ' 

A test  was  made  of  the  silage  described  in  an  earlier 
section  to  determine  its  value  in  rations  for  breeding 
cows.  Table  II  gives  the  results  obtained  both  from 
rations  consisting  solely  of  alfalfa  and  rations  in  which 
silage  replaced  part  of  the  hay. 


Ration  Experiments  With  Cattle. 


37 


TABLE  II. 

Alfalfa  vs.  alfalfa  and  silage  for  breeding  cows. 


LOT 

III. 

LOT  IV. 

Alfalfa, 

silage. 

Alfalfa. 

Avg.  initial  weight  

1154 

lbs. 

1246  lbs. 

Avg.  final  weight  

1196 

lbs. 

1318  lbs. 

Gain  per  cow  per  week 

2.5 

lbs. 

3.9  lbs. 

Avg.  daily  feed  per  cow: 

Alfalfa  

10 

lbs. 

21.8  lbs. 

Silage  

15 

lbs. 

Ccsit  of  ration  per  cow  per  day 

9 cents. 

13  cents. 

The  experiment  was  run  for  140  days,  beginning  De- 
cember 23rd,  1913,  and  ending  May  12th,  1914;  but  dur- 
ing that  time  cows  in  both  lots  calved  and  were  dropped 
from  the  trial.  Therefore  the  gains  made  are  figured  on 
a weekly  basis. 

Both  rations  met  requirements  very  satisfactorily. 
While  the  15  pounds  of  silage  fed  to  each  cow  in  Lot  III 
did  not  quite  replace  the  11.8  pounds  extra  alfalfa  animals 
in  Lot  IV  received,  it  made  a good  winter  ration  for 
breeding  cows  and  effected  a saving  of  four  cents  per 
cow  per  day. 

PART  III.  OAT  AND  PEA  SILAGE  FOR  GROW- 
ING CATTLE. 

Succulence  is  desirable  in  rations  for  young  cattle  as 
well  as  for  old.  In  sections  not  adapted  to  corn  it  must 
be  furnished  by  means  of  roots  or  through  the  use  of 
some  other  silage  crop.  In  the  feeding  tests  outlined 
on  the  following  pages  oat  and  pea  silage  was  used  to 
replace  alfalfa  in  a ration.  Table  III  will  show  how 
well  it  did  its  work. 


38  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  108 


TABLE  III. 


Grain,  alfalfa  and  silage  vs.  grain  and  alfalfa  for 
growing  beef  cattle. 

Dec.  23,  1913,  to  May  12,  1914.  (140  days.) 


LOT 

V. 

LOT 

VI. 

Grain,  alfalfa, 
silage. 

Grain,  alfalfa 

Avg.  initial  weight 

834 

lbs. 

808 

lbs. 

A vg.  final  weight 

964 

lbs. 

950 

lbs. 

Gain  per  heifer  

130 

lbs. 

142 

lbs. 

Avg.  daily  gain  

.93  lbs. 

1.02 

lbs. 

Avg.  daily  feed  per  heifer: 

Grain  

1.8 

lbs 

1.8 

lbs. 

Alfalfa  .. 

10 

lbs. 

18 

lbs. 

Silage  

10 

lbs. 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain: 

Grain  

195 

lbs. 

176 

lbs. 

Alfalfa  

1077 

lbs. 

1762 

lbs. 

Silage  .. 

1077 

lbs. 

Cost  of  100  pounds  gain: 

$11.05 

$12.77 

Cost  of  daily  ration  per  heifer.. 

10.5  cts. 

13  cts. 

Gains  were  good  with  both  lots,  the  ration  fed  to  Lot 
VI  putting  on  13  pounds  more  gain  per  animal  during 
the  140  days  of  the  trial  than  did  the  ration  in  which  en- 
silage was  used.  The  feed  requirements  for  100  pounds 
gain  ran  rather  high  for  both  lots  due  largely  to,  the  fact 
that  rations  were  planned  for  fair  growth  rather  than 
for  rapid  gains. 

The  ration  fed  Lot  V,  consisting  of  grain,  alfalfa  and 
silage,  cost  less  per  day  and  put  on  cheaper  gains  than 
did  the  grain  and  alfalfa  ration.  Silage  in  this  trial 
proved  to  be  a valuable  addition  to  the  ration. 


Ration  Experiments  With  Cattle. 


39 


Lot  VII  consisted  of  a rather  mixed  lot  of  animals 
that  did  not  seem  to  fit  in  well  with  any  of  the  other 
groups.  In  order  to  test  the  value  of  silage  as  com- 
pletely as  possible  five  of  the  animals  were  fed  reversi- 
ble rations  during  four-week  periods,  that  is,  they  were 
fed  silage  during  one  period  and  no  silage  during  the 
next,  etc.  The  results  obtained  by  this  method  of  feed- 
ing are  shown  in  the  following  tabulation: 

TABLE  IV. 


Grain  and  alfalfa  vs.  grain , alfalfa  and  silage  for 
growing  cattle.  Ration  changed  every  four  weeks. 

Dec  23,  1913,  to  April  14,  1914,  (112  days.) 


Hereford 
U.  W.  218, 

Angus 
U.  W.  216, 

Ayrshire 
U.  W.  211, 

Jersey 
U.  W.  143, 

Hereford 
U.  W.  203, 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs . 

lbs. 

Avg.  initial  weight 

474 

549 

496 

616 

947 

Avg.  final  weight 

582 

725 

636 

694 

1045 

Gain  8 weeks  with  silage.... 

68 

89 

52 

52 

86 

Gain  8 weeks  without  silage 

40 

87 

88 

26 

12 

Daily  ration  with  silage, 
8 weeks: 

Grain  

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

Alfalfa  

6 

6 

6 

8 

10 

Silage  

5.5 

5.5 

5.5 

10 

10 

Daily  ration,  no  silage, 
8 weeks: 

Grain  

3 

3 

3 

3 

1.5 

Alfalfa  

9.5 

9.5 

9.5 

12 

18.0 

Total  gain  of  5 head  on  silage  347  lbs. 

Total  gain  of  5 head  without  silage  253  lbs. 


Total  gain  of  5 head  on  silage  347  lbs. 

Total  gain  of  5 head  without  silage  253  lbs. 


40  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  108 


Every  animal  but  211  responded  better  to  the  silage 
ration,  the  total  gain  for  the  lot  being  94  pounds  more 
than  it  was  when  no  silage  was  fed. 

With  animals  218,  216  and  211  the  silage  ration  con- 
tained 5.5  pounds  silage  which  was  replaced  in  the  no- 
silage ration  by  3.5  pounds  alfalfa  hay.  Jersey  No.  143 
had  4 pounds  extra  alfalfa  per  day  when  10  pounds  si- 
lage was  dropped;  and  Hereford  No.  203  had  8 pounds 
■ . , . . / 

extra  alfalfa  as  a substitute  for  10  pounds  silage. 

A careful  study  of  Table  IV  furnishes  convincing  ar- 
guments for  the  use  of  oat  and  pea  silage  in  rations  for 
growing  cattle.  In  the  total  daily  ration  for  the  five 
animals  36  pounds  silage  and  22.5  pounds  alfalfa  were 
fed  interchangeabljr  with  gains  considerably  in  favor 
of  the  silage.  1.6  pounds  silage  took  the  place  of  1 
pound  choice  alfalfa  and  gave  heavier  gains.  There  was 
practically  no  waste  hay  or  silage  left  by  any  of  the  cat- 
tle. 

Two  French  Canadian  heifers  of  about  the  same  age 
and  weight  were  put  on  comparable  rations ; one  consist- 
ing of  grain  and  alfalfa,  and  the  other  of  grain,  alfalfa 
and  silage.  Table  V gives  the  results  obtained  wTith 
these  two  individuals. 


Ration  Experiments  With  Cattle. 


41 


TABLE  V. 

Grain  and  alfalfa  vs.  grain , alfalfa  and  silage  for 


growing  heifers. 

Dec.  23,  1913,  to  April  14,  1914,  (112  days.) 


French  Canadian' 
U.  W.  145. 
Grain,  alfalfa. 

French  Canadian 
U.  W.  146 
Grain,  alfalfa, 
silage. 

Initial  weight  

570 

lbs. 

540 

lbs. 

Final  weight  

675 

lbs. 

610 

lbs. 

Total  gain  

105 

lbs. 

70 

lbs. 

Daily  gain  . 

Daily  ration: 

.9 

4 lbs. 

.63  lbs. 

1 

Grain  

3 

lbs. 

3 

lbs. 

Alfalfa 

12 

lbs 

8 

lbs. 

Silage 

7.9 

lbs. 

With  but  one  animal  on  each  ration  it  would  be  foolish 
to  attempt  to  draw  conclusions.  The  table  may  be  of 
interest  to  some  in  showing-  amounts  fed,  gains  made, 
etc. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 


The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  E.  N.  Roberts,  Assistant 
Station  Chemist,  for  analyses  of  the  feeds  used  in  these 
experiments.  The  results  he  obtained  are  given  in 
Table  VI. 


42  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  108 


TABLE  VI. 

Percentage  Composition  of  Feeds  Used • 


Percentage  Composition  Air  Dry. 


FEED 

j Water 

j 

1 

> 

:n 

Protein 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitrogen, 
free  ext 

Ether 
extract 

Native  hay  

6.18 

6.27 

10.50 

21.90 

43.33 

1.82 

Alfalfa,  1st  cutting  

6.35 

8.37 

11.35 

co.32 

36.78 

1.83 

Alfalfa,  2nd  cutting  

6.17 

8.08 

li.06 

35.39 

34.61 

1.69 

Corn  meal  

9.20 

1.46 

10.53 

1.67 

73.39 

3.75 

Oats  

8.02 

3.75 

14.25 

10.26 

58.95 

4.77 

Mill  feed  

8.19 

5.45 

14.28 

8.36 

58.91 

4.81 

Oat  and  pea  silage  (.air  dry) 

6.21 

8.09 

9.65 

27.05 

44.95 

4.05 

Oat  and  pea  silage  (calculat- 
ed to  original  water  content. 

69.73 

2.61 

3.11 

8.73 

14.51  | 

1.31 

**ftussion  thistle  silage 
(air  dry)  

4.83 

17.72 

5.65 

28.68 

1 

40.72 

2.40 

**Russian  thistle  silage 
calculated  to  original 
water  content)  ..  .. 

6.40 

2.04 

10.35 

14.70 

.87 

**The  figures  for  Russian  thistle  silage  were  obtained 
from  a sample  of  the  material  brought  in  from  the  F.  A. 
Holliday  ranch.  Mr.  Holliday  fed  the  thistle  silage  to 
dairy  stock  and  was  well  satisfied  with  results.  The  this- 
tles were  cut  about  September  1st. 


Ether 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 


Officers. 

TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B President 

C.  D.  SPALDING  Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 


Executive  Committee. 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 

Members.  Term 


Appointed  Expires 

1911 HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS : 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911.f HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A 1921 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915  HON.  J.  M.  CAREY 1921 

EDITH  K.  0.  CLARK,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 


PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D.,  L.  L.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL 

C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D , President 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M.  * Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

C.  D.  MOIR ! Clerk 


A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S 

O.  L.  PREIN,  M.  D.  V.  * 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,  M.  S 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

S.  K.  LOY,  Ph.  D 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

J.  E.  MCWILLIAMS,  B.S.  * 

O.  A.  BEATH,  M.  A 

P.  T.  MEYERS,  B.  S.  A 

J.  I.  KIRKPATRICK,  D.  V.  M... 

* Absent  on  leave. 


Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

Assistant  Chemist 

Wool  Specialist 

Veterinarian 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Chemist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Parasitologist 

.Animal  Husbandman 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Agronomist 
Veterinarian 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 


AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


BULLETIN  NO.  109 

NOVEMBER  1915 


SHEEP  FEEDING 

I.  (a)  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Fattening  Lambs, 
(b)  Corn  vs.  Barley  for  Fattening  Lambs. 

II.  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Breeding  Ewes. 

III.  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Ram  Lambs. 


A.  D.  Faville 

Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address:  Director 

Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


Digest. 


The  heaviest  gains  made  by  fattening  iambs  were  on  a 
rations  of  corn  and  alfalfa.  Page  52. 

Valuing  alfalfa  at  $12.00  and  silage  at  $4.00  per  ton, 
a ration  in  which  silage  was  used  made  as  cheap  gains  in 
fattening  lambs  as  did  the  corn  and  alfalfa  ration. 

Page  52. 

Alfalfa  and  silage  without  grain  did  not  prove  to  be  a 
satisfactory  fattening  rations  for  lambs.  Pages  52-53. 

When  barley  replaced  corn  in  a fattening  ration  gains 
were  somewhat  lower.  Page  54. 

Oat  and  pea  silage  may  be  used  satisfactorily  in  ra- 
tions for  breeding  ewes.  Page  56. 

In  growing  rations  for  ram  lambs  oat  and  pea  silage 
may  be  used  to  replace  part  of  the  alfalfa.  Page  57. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 


Officers. 

TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B President 

C.  D.  SPALDING  Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A.  ..: _ ....Secretary 


A.  B.  HAMILTON 


Executive  Committee. 
T.  F.  BURKE 
Members. 


W.  S.  INGHAM 

Term 

Appointed  Expires 

1911 HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911 HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A 1921 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915  HON.  J.  M.  CAREY 1921 

EDITH  K.  O.  CLARK,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D„  L.  L.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL 

C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D President 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M.  * Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

C.  D.  MOIR Clerk 


A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S.  

O.  L.  PREIN,  M.  D.  V.  *.. 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,  M.  S 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

S.  K.  LOY,  Ph.  D 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

J.  E.  MCWILLIAMS,  B.S.  * 

O.  A.  BEATH,  M.  A 

P.  T.  MEYERS,  B.  S.  A 

J.  I.  KIRKPATRICK,  D.  V.  M, 

* Absent  on  leave. 


Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

....Assistant  Chemist 

Wool  Specialist 

Veterinarian 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Animal  Husbandman 

r Agronomist 

Chemist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Parasitologist 

Animal  Husbandman 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Agronomist 

Veterinarian 


Sheep  Feeding  Experiment. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  great  silage  crop,  corn,  is  grown  successfully  in 
few  parts  of  Wyoming.  Have  we  other  materials  that 
may  be  used  to  advantage  in  furnishing  succulence  for 
our  winter  stock  rations?  If  satisfactory  corn  substi- 
tutes are  found,  many  parts  of  the  state  will  find  the  silo 
a paying  proposition.  Experiments  outlined  on  the  fol- 
lowing pages  were  undertaken  with  the  idea  of  throw- 
ing some  light  on  the  Wyoming  silo  problem. 

Sheep . 

The  lambs  fattened  experimentally  were  ordinary 
range  stuff  out  of  grade  fine  wooled  ewes  which  had 
been  bred  to  mutton  rams.  Altho  fairly  uniform  in  type, 
they  were  not  choice  in  quality.  The  breeding  ewes 
consisted  of  the  College  purebred  flock,  a mixture  of 
both  Down  and  Long-wooled  breeds.  They  were  in  good 
condition,  hence  required  no  more  than  a maintenance 
ration.  The  ram  lambs  were  purebreds  from  the  Col- 
lege flock  and  represented  most  of  the  leading  mutton 
breeds.  All  lots  compared  were  arranged  so  as  to  indicate 
animals  of  the  same  type  and  breeding. 

Shelter . 

Good  shelter  was  provided  for  all  lots.  The  fattening 
lambs  had  yards  large  enough  to  furnish  needed  exer- 
cise while  the  ewes  and  rams  had  the  run  of  large  fields 
during  the  pleasant  days.  All  of  the  sheep  were  housed 
in  a dry  well-vetilated  barn. 


50  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  109 


Divisions  Made  and  Rations  Fed > 

Divisions  were  always  planned  with  the  idea  of  mak- 
ing lots  to  be  compared  as  uniform  as  possible.  The 
number  of  animals  in  each  lot  and  rations  fed  were  as 
follows : 

Lot  I.  (25  lambs).  Shelled  corn,  alfalfa,  silage. 

Lot  II.  (25  lambs).  Shelled  corn,  alfalfa. 

Lot  III.  (25  lambs).  Whole  barley,  alfalfa,  silage. 

Lot  IV.  (25  lambs).  Alfalfa,  silage. 

Lot  V.  (20  breeding  ewes,  1 ram) . Alfalfa. 

Lot  VI.  (20  breeding  ewes,  1 ram).  Alfalfa,  silage* 

Lot  VII.  (12  rams).  Grain  (5  parts  mill  feed,  2 
parts  oats,  3 parts  corn  meal),  alfalfa,  silage. 

Lot  VIII.  (11  rams).  Grain  (same  as  Lot  VII), 
alfalfa. 

Feeds . 

Corn  was  shipped  in  from  Nebraska.  Scotch  barley 
grown  on  the  Laramie  Plains  was  fed.  The  alfalfa,  both 
first  and  second  cutting,  was  of  good  quality  and  was 
grown  on  farms  near  the  Station.  During  the  latter 
part  of  the  tests  with  breeding  ewes  and  ram  lambs,  al- 
falfa brought  in  from  Wheatland  was  fed.  It  was  poor  in 
quality  and  very  coarse.  The  mill  feed,  or  mill  run  bran, 
consisting  of  a mixture  of  bran  and  middlings,  was  an 
Idaho  product.  The  oats  were  also  from  outside  of  the 
state.  Oats,  through  wdiich  were  scattered  a few  peas, 
furnished  the  bulk  of  the  silage.  The  crop  was  harvest- 
ed when  the  oats  were  beginning  to  turn  and  a consid- 


Ration  Experiments  With  Sheep.  51 

erable  amount  of  water  was  added  to  the  silage  mate- 
rial. Small  amounts  of  barley  and  alfalfa,  which  were 
also  ensiled,  came  out  in  good  shape.  The  bulk  of  the 
silage  fed  experimentally  consisted  of  the  oats  and  peas. 
It  kept  well  and  was  greedily  eaten  by  cattle  of  all  ages. 
The  sheep  were  somewhat  slow  in  taking  to  the  silage 
and  it  was  seldom  possible  to  get  them  to  eat  more  than  a 
pound  a day,  even  when  fed  morning  and  evening. 

An  analysis  of  all  the  feeds  used  will  be  found  at  the 
back  of  this  bulletin. 

During  extremely  cold  weather  fresh  water  was  sup- 
plied to  each  lot  twice  a day;  at  other  times  the  tubs 
were  filled  often er.  Salt  was  always  accessible. 

Weight 

Lots  I to  IV,  inclusive,  were  weighed  for  three  suc- 
cessive days  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  trial  and  av- 
erages of  the  weights  were  taken.  Single  weighings  were 
made  every  two  weeks  during  the  tests.  Lots  V,  VI, 
VII  and  VIII  were  weighed  every  four  weeks. 

Methods  of  Feeding . 

All  feed  troughs  and  racks  were  under  cover.  Hay 
was  placed  in  long  V-shaped  racks  built  so  as  to  catch 
hay  that  was  pulled  out.  Silage  and  grains  were  fed  in 
narrow  troughs.  The  fattening  lambs  were  given  all 
their  feed  in  morning  and  evening  installments.  Lot  V 
had  hay  morning  and  evening  and  Lot  VI  received  si- 
lage in  the  morning  and  hay  in  the  evening.  Lot  VII 


52  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  109 


received  grain  and  alfalfa  in  the  evening  and  silage  in 
the  morning,  while  Lot  VIII  had  grain  in  the  evening 
and  alfalfa  in  the  morning  and  evening.  The  preliminary 
feed  of  lots  to  be  compared  was  always  the  same.  The 
sheep  were  in  charge  of  R.  P.  Allen,  who  gave  them 
careful  attention  throughout  the  trial. 

Prices  of  Lambs  and  Feeds. 

The  grade  lambs  were  purchased  for  $5.50  per  hun- 
dred and  sold  locally  for  $6.25.  Had  there  been  enough 
to  ship  the  price  realized  would  probably  have  been 
somewhat  better.  Feeds  have  been  figured  at  the  fol- 
lowing prices:  Corn  and  barley,  $1.25  per  hundred;  al- 
falfa, $12.00  per  ton,  and  silage,  $4.00  per  ton. 

L (a)  OAT  AND  PEA  SILAGE  FOR  FATTENING 

LAMBS. 

As  was  previously  stated,  the  silage  consisted  chiefly 
of  oats.  The  lambs  were  fed  all  the  silage  and  hay  they 
would  clean  up  with  a limited  grain  ration.  By  restrict- 
ing the  grain  allowance  it  was  thought  that  the  lambs 
might  be  induced  to  eat  more  silage.  Table  I shows  the 
comparative  value  of  the  various  rations: 


Ration  Experiments  With  Sheep. 


53 


TABLE  I. 


Oat  and  pea  silage  for  fattening  lambs. 
Nov-  18,  1913,  to  Mar.  10,  1914.  (112  days). 


‘ 

LOT  I. 

LOT  11. 

LOT  IV. 

Corn, 

alfalfa, 

silage. 

Corn, 

alfalfa. 

Alfalfa, 

silage. 

lbs. 

lbs . 

lbs . 

Avg.  initial  weight 

46 

46.1 

45.7 

Avg.  final  weight 

73.8 

76.2 

64.6 

Gain  per  lamb 

27.8 

30.1 

18.9 

Avg.  daily  gain 

.25 

.27 

.17 

Avg.  daily  feed  per  lamb: 

Grain 

.47 

.47 

Alfalfa 

1.8 

2.3 

2.3 

Silage 

.74 

Feed  per  100  lbs.  gain: 

, 

Grain 

191 

176 

Alfalfa 

730 

854 

1376 

Silage 

284 

439 

Cost  of  100  lbs.  gain 

$7.33 

$7.32 

$9.13 

Lot  II  receiving  corn  and  alfalfa  made  slightly  the 
best  gains  while  Lot  IV,  getting  no  grain,  was  a poor 
third.  Comparing  Lots  I and  II  we  find  that  .7  pounds 
of  silage  in  one  ration  replaced  .5  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay 
in  the  other.  Lot  IV  received  the  same  hay  ration  as 
Lot  II  and  .74  pounds  of  silage  was  fed  instead  of  .47 
pounds  shelled  corn.  The  grainless  ration  did  not  put 
on  satisfactory  gains. 

Feed  requirements  for  100  pounds  gain  were  fairly  low 
with  Lots  I and  II  while  with  Lot  IV  they  ran  high,  due 
to  the  slow  gains  made.  Lot  I in  comparison  with  Lot  II 
required  15  pounds  more  grain  and  124  pounds  less  hay 


54  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  109 


in  addition  to  284  pounds  of  silage  to  make  a hundred 
pound  gain. 

Using  feed  prices  indicated  previously  we  find  cost 
of  gains  practically  the  same  for  Lots  I and  II  and  much 
higher  for  Lot  IV.  Under  conditions  outlined  for  the 
first  two  lots,  with  alfalfa  at  $12.00  per  ton,  the  silage 
was  worth  $4.00.  It  is  possible  better  silage  returns 
would  have  been  obtained  if  the  lambs  had  eaten  it  more 
freely. 

At  the  close  of  the  112  day  feeding  period,  Lot  IV 
lacked  finish  so  was  put  on  a grain  ration  for  28  days. 
The  following  figures  were  collected  during  this  time : 

Lot  IV,  on  feed  28  days.  Mar.  11  to  Apr.  7,  1914. 


Lbs. 

Average  initial  weight 64.6 

Average  final  weight 72.1 

Average  total  gain  7.5 

Average  daily  gain  27 

Average  daily  rations: 

Shelled  corn  6 

Alfalfa  2.0 

iSilage  1.0 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain: 

Grain  219 

Alfalfa  755 

Silage  373 


While  gains  were  much  better  than  they  had  been  pre- 
viously financial  returns  did  not  justify  the  added  ex- 
pense. 

(b)  CORN  VS.  BARLEY  FOR  FATTENING  LAMBS. 

Barley  is  a grain  that  can  be  grown  successfully  in 
most  of  our  western  country  while  the  areas  adapted  to 
corn  culture  are  extremely  limited.  Home  grown  ra- 
tions are  tc  be  desired  when  practicable,  hence  compari- 


Ration  Experiments  With  Sheep. 


55 


sons  between  corn  and  barley  are  always  interesting  to 
feeders  outside  of  the  corn  belt.  Lots  I and  II  furnish 
comparisons  between  two  rations,  one  of  which  was 
composed  entirely  of  home  grown  feeds  while  the  other 
had  native  roughages  with  corn  as  a concentrate.  Ta- 
ble II  furnishes  a comparison  of  the  two  rations. 

TABLE  II. 


Com,  alfalfa  and  silage  vs.  barley,  alfalfa  and  silage 
for  fattening  lambs. 


Nov.  18,  1913,  to  Mar.  10,  1914.  (112  days). 

LOT  I. 

LOT  III. 

Corn,  alfalfa, 

; Barley,  alfalfa. 

silage. 

silage. 

A vg.  initial  weight  

46  lbs. 

46.3  lbs. 

Avg.  final  weight 

73.8  lbs. 

71.6  lbs. 

Gain  per  lamb  

27.8  lbs. 

25.3  lbs. 

Avg.  daily  gain 

.25  lbs. 

.23  lbs. 

Avg.  daily  feed  per  lamb: 

Grain 

i 

.47  lbs. 

.47  lbs. 

Alfalfa 

1.8  lbs. 

1.8  lbs. 

Silage 

.7  lbs. 

.7  lbs. 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain: 

Grain 

191  lbs. 

j 209  lbs. 

Alfalfa 

730  lbs. 

802  lbs. 

Silage 

284  lbs. 

j 312  lbs. 

Cost  of  100  lbs.  gain  

$7.32 

$8.04 

Returns  from  corn  were  somewhat  better  throughout 
the  experiment,  though  differences  were  not  great. 
Eighteen  pounds  less  grain,  72  pounds  less  alfalfa  and 
28  pounds  less  silage  was  required  for  100  pounds  gain 
when  corn  replaced  barley  in  the  ration  and  the  cost  of 
100  pounds  gain  was  72c  less  with  Lot  I than  with  Lot 
III.  Under  conditions  prevailing  in  many  sections  of 
the  state,  either  ration  ought  to  put  on  profitable  gains. 


56  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  109 


Part  II.  OAT  AND  PEA  SILAGE  FOR  BREEDING 

EWES. 

The  sheepman  who  is  compelled  to  feed  his  stock 
throughout  the  winter  or  during  periods  of  storm  is 
always  interested  in  the  question  of  maintenance  rations 
for  his  breeding  ewes.  A ration  to  be  satisfactory  must 
be  one  that  puts  the  animal  in  good  breeding  condition 
without  putting  too  heavy  a drain  on  the  owner's  pocket- 
book.  Succulent  feeds  are  always  desirable  for  breeding 
stock.  Roots  or  corn  silage  are  used  extensively  in  sec- 
tions where  either  crop  may  be  satisfactorily  grown. 
Western  rations  have  usually  lacked  in  succulence.  Can 
this  deficiency  be  met  by  ensiling  crops  that  thrive  where 
corn  cannot  be  grown  and  roots  are  produced  at  a high 
cost?  A study  of  Table  III  may  throw  some  light  on 
the  subject. 

Lots  V and  VI,  composed  of  the  University  breeding 
ewes,  were  fed  with  the  idea  of  comparing  a straight 
alfalfa  ration  with  one  in  which  oat  and  pea  silage  re- 
placed part  of  the  alfalfa. 

TABLE  III. 


Alfalfa  vs.  alfalfa  and  silage  for  breedings  ewes. 
Jan.  3,  to  Feb.  28,  1914.  (56  days). 


LOT 

V. 

LOT 

VI. 

Alfalfa. 

Alfalfa, 

silage. 

Avg.  initial  weight 

185 

lbs. 

183 

lbs. 

Avg.  final  weight 

193 

lbs. 

186 

lbs. 

Gain  per  sheep  

8 

lbs. 

3 

lbs. 

Avg.  daily  ration: 

Alfalfa  

4.5 

lbs. 

3 

lbs. 

Silage  

Cost  per  week  of  keeping 
one  185  lb.  ewe  

18.9c 

1.5  lbs. 
14.7c 

Ration  Experiments  With  Sheep. 


57 


Both  rations  proved  to  be  satisfactory  for  mainte- 
nance requirements.  Lot  V gained  a trifle  more  but  that 
is  to  be  expected.  With  Lot  VI  silage  replaced  alfalfa 
pound  for  pound,  hence  the  total  dry  matter  fed  this 
lot  was  considerably  less.  There  was  apparently  no 
difference  in  the  strength  and  quality  of  the  lambs 
dropped  by  the  two  lots,  the  percentage  of  lambs  being 
unusually  high  for  the  whole  flock. 

/ 9 

At  the  feed  prices  established,  $12.00  per  ton  for  alfalfa 
and  $4.00  for  silage,  the  cost  of  feed  per  week  for  each 
animal  in  Lot  V was  18.9c.  With  the  animals  in  Lot  VI 
getting  silage  this  charge  was  reduced  to  14.7c  per  head, 
a saving  of  4.2c  per  week.  From  the  standpoint  of 
economy,  with  feed  priced  as  indicated,  the  silage  rations 
proved  to  be  the  more  satisfactory. 


PART  III . OAT  AND  PEA  SILAGE  FOR  RAM 
LAMBS. 

Twenty-three  purebred  lambs  dropped  rather  late  in 
the  spring  of  1913  were  divided  as  carefully  as  possi- 
ble into  two  lots  and  put  on  growing  rations  planned 
to  still  further  test  the  value  of  the  oat  and  pea  silage 
previously  described. 

Table  IV  gives  the  chief  points  of  interest  brought  out 
in  connection  with  this  test. 


58  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  109 


TABLE  IV, 


Grain , alfalfa  and  silage  vs.  grain  and  alfalfa  for 
growing  rams- 

Jan.  3,  to  Apr.  11,  1914.  (98  days). 


LOT 

VII. 

LOT  VIII. 

Grain,  alfalfa, 
silage. 

Grain, 

alfalfa. 

Avg.  initial  weight 

88.5 

lbs. 

88  lbs. 

Avg.  final  weight 

112.5 

lbs. 

118.9  lbs. 

Gain  per  lamb  

24 

lbs. 

30.9  lbs. 

Avg.  daily  gain 

.24 

lbs. 

.32  lbs. 

Avg.  daily  feed: 

Grain  

.6 

lbs. 

.6  lbs. 

Alfalfa  

3 

lbs. 

4.4  lbs. 

Silage  

1 

lbs. 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain: 

Grain  

248 

lbs. 

193  lbs. 

Alfalfa  

1221 

lbs. 

1405  lbs. 

Silage  

408 

lbs. 

Cost  of  100  lbs.  gain  

$11.24 

$10.84 

Cost  of  growing  rations 

per  ram  per  week  

19. 

2c 

23.7c 

The  ration  fed  Lot  VII  was  the  cheaper  but  gains 
were  smaller.  The  cost  of  putting  on  100  pounds  gain 
was  40  cents  cheaper  with  Lot  VIII  than  it  was  with 
Lot  VII. 

In  all  cost  figures  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact 
that  feed  prices  used  probably  vary  widely  from  prices 
prevailing  in  many  parts  of  the  state  and  re-adjustments 
must  be  made  to  meet  local  conditions. 

The  amount  of  alfalfa  fed  Lot  VII  was  restricted  in 
an  attempt  to  make  the  sheep  eat  more  silage,  yet  it 
seemed  impossible  to  get  them  to  take  large  amounts. 
For  this  reason  the  ration  supplied  Lot  VII  was  consid- 


Ration  Experiments  With  Sheep. 


59 


erably  lower  in  feeding  value  than  that  given  Lot  VIII. 

Summing  up  the  results  obtained  from  the  use  of  si- 
lage in  sheep  rations  during  the  past  year  one  would 
not  be  far  wrong  in  giving  it  a value  of  $4.00  per  ton 
when  first  class  alfalfa  is  worth  $12.00.  With  a larger 
percentage  of  peas  in  the  silage  its  value  ought  to  be 
correspondingly  increased. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  E.  N.  Roberts,  Assistsant 
Station  Chemist,  for  analyses  of  the  feeds  used  in  these 
experiments.  The  results  he  obtained  are  given  in 
Table  V. 


TABLE  V. 

Percentage  composition  °f  feeds  used , 


FEED. 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
protein | 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitrogen 
free  ext... 

Ether 

extract 

Alfalfa  

6.14 

7.20 

11.00 

37.33 

36.89 

1.44 

Oat  and  pea  silage 

6.21 

S.09 

9.65 

27.06 

44.95 

4.05 

Oat  and  pea  silage, 

(calculated  to  original 

water  content) 

69.73 

2.61 

3.11 

8.73 

14.51 

1.31 

Corn  (whole)  

8.81 

1.33 

9.81 

2.01 

74.24 

3.80 

Corn  meal  

8.66 

! 1.69 

10.44 

2.05 

73.43 

3.73 

Barley  

8.51 

3.36 

12.40 

6. SO 

66.69 

2.24 

Oats  

7.90 

3.64 

13.38 

10.53  - 

59.85 

4.70 

**Mill  feed  

8.30 

5.67 

15.45 

8.09 

57.65 

4.84 

**Called  also  mill  run  bran,  a mixture  of  bran  ana 
middlings. 


BULLETIN  NO.  110. 


. SEPTEMBER.  1916 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


SWEET  CLOVER 
By  T.  S.  Parsons 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request.  Address:  Director 

Experiment  Station.  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 

BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 
Officers 


TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B • ■ President  ' 

MARY  B.  DAVID Vice  President 

C.  D.  SPALDING-.. Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BUR  RAGE,  B.  A Secretary 


Executive  Committee 


A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 

Members  Terms 


Appointed  Expires 

1911 HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D —1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH,  B.  S 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911 HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A „..1921 

1913 HON  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915.: HON.  J.  M.  CAREY,  LL.  B 1921 


EDITH  K.  O.  CLARK  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 


PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Fh.  D.,  L.  L.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL 

C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D President 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M .Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

C.  D.  MOIR ... Clerk 

A.  NELSON,  Fh.  D Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S - Research  Chemist 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S..... Wool  Specialist 


J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E. 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,  M.  S 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

O.  A.  BEATH,  M.  A 

P.  T.  MEYERS,  B.  S.  A 

E.  H.  LEHNERT,  D.  V.  S 


..-Irrigation  Engineer 
.Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

.Engineering  Chemist 

Parasitologist 

-Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Agronomist 
Veterinarian 


Sweet  Clover 

By  T.  S.  Parsons. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Sweet  clover  is  becoming  an  important  crop  in  Wy- 
oming. It  has  until  recently  been  considered  a weed  and 
a pest  to  be  kept  off  the  farm.  As  farmers  come  to  un- 
derstand the  nature  of  the  plant  better,  however,  it  is 
becoming  more  and  more  popular.  It  is  a good  soil  builder, 
can  be  used  as  a pasture  crop,  and  can  be  utilized  to  good 
advantage  on  lands  too  dry  or  too  alkaline  for  alfalfa  to 
grow. 

Sweet  clover  will  do  very  well  on  practically  all  of 
the  soils  of  the  state,  provided  they  are  not  saturated  or 
water-logged.  The  plant  will  not  thrive  on  soil  that  is  sat- 
urated but  will  do  well  on  soils  where  the  water  table  is 
within  two  feet  of  the  surface.  It  also  does  not  do  so  well 
on  loose  sandy  soils  but  will  usually  make  as  good  a crop 
on  poor  soils  as  any  other  crop  that  can  be  grown.  It  re- 
sponds to  good  treatment  and  fertile  soil  as  well  as  any 
other  plant  and  if  grown  for  hay  it  should  be  sown  on 
good  soil  so  that  a better  growth  may  be  obtained.  Lime 
is  very  essential  for  the  successful  growing  of  sweet 
clover.  Wyoming  soils  are  generally  well  supplied  with 
this  element,  therefore  sweet  clover  does  well. 

It  is  as  a soil  improver  that  the  sweet  clover  has  its 
greatest  value.  It  brings  quick  results  when  used  as 
green  manure  or  when  grown  before  another  crop.  It 
thrives  well  on  soils  lacking  in  humus,  therefore  it  is 
valuable  for  building  up  these  soils.  The  large  fleshy 
roots  of  the  plant  penetrate  the  soil,  breaking  up  the 
lower  layers,  and  adding  humus  to  it  when  they  decay, 
thus  improving  its  texture  to  a considerable  depth  below 
the  depth  of  plowing.  Sandy  soils  as  well  as  heavy  clay 
and  hardpan  soils  can  be  reclaimed  with  sweet  clover  and 
put  in  condition  for  growing  other  crops.  Another  factor 
in  favor  of  sweet  clover  is  that  the  bacteria  on  its  roots 
will  inoculate  the  soil  for  alfalfa.*  It  is  therefore  a 
*HOPKINS,  Soil  Fertility,  New  York,  (1910),  p.  208. 


4.  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Eulletin  No.  110. 


valuable  crop  to  grow  on  the  land  immediately  preceding 
alfalfa.  The  bacteria  not  only  inoculate  the  soil  but  the 
roots  penetrate  the  soil,  breaking  it  up  and  aerating  it, 
making  a condition  more  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the 
last  named  plant. 


Fig.  1. — Volunteer  sweet  clover  along  ditch  banks. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  sweet  clover  quite  generally 
grown:  The  white,  botanically  known  as  Melilotus  alba , 
and  the  yellow,  botanically  known  as  Medicago  officinalis. 
The  white  is  the  most  common  and  the  variety  generally 
preferred  for  either  hay  or  pasture.  It  grows  larger  and 
coarser  than  the  yellow  variety.  The  latter  is  preferred 
by  some  as  a hay  plant  on  account  of  its  finer  habit  of 
growth.  It  is  now  being  grown  quite  extensively  over  the 
state.  Fig.  2 shows  a row  of  yellow  clover  between  two 
rows  of  white. 

Sweet  clover  is  also  much  esteemed  as  a honey,  pro- 
ducing plant.  It  is  the  only  flowering  plant  that  can  be 
grown  in  waste  places  and  utilized  for  this  purpose.  The 
tendency  of  sweet  clover  to  occupy  vacant  land  is  note- 
worthy. it  is  seen  on  vacant  lots,  along  roadsides,  rail- 
road embankments  and  irrigation  ditches. f It  does  not, 
fit  is  passing  out  into  the  open  range  at  least  one  point  in  the  state. 


Sept.  1916. 


Sweet  Clover. 


5. 


however,  usually  occupy  cultivated  fields  or  meadows. 
Therefore,  it  need  not  be  considered  a pest.  Catt!e  and 
other  stock  eat  it  readily  when  accustomed  to  it  and  ap- 
parently thrive  as  well  on  it  as  on  alfalfa. 


Fig.  2 — Yellow  sweet  clover  in  the  middle  with  white  sweet 
clover  cn  either  side.  Notice  the  finer  and  more  compact  growth 
of  the  yellow  variety. 

I.  Cultural  Experiments  with  Sweet  Clover. 

Results  on  Water-Logged  and  Alkaline  Land. 

For  the  past  five  years  some  sweet  clover  has  been 
grown  on  the  Agronomy  farm  of  the  Experiment  Station. 
No  regular  experimental  work  was  attempted  until  the 
past  two  years.  Certain  portions  of  the  farm  not  suitable 
for  other  crops  on  account  of  seepage  and  alkali  were 
sown.  A fair  crop,  usually  about  one  ton  per  acre  has 
been  obtained  from  the  poorest  of  these  lands.  Where 
sweet  clover  has  been  sowed  on  good  soil,  uniformly  good 
stands  and  good  yields  have  been  obtained,  showing  that 
this  crop  as  well  as  any  other  responds  to  good  treat- 
ment. 

At  the  east  side  of  the  agronomy  farm  is  an  area  of 
land  consisting  of  about  four  acres,  which  receives  consid- 


r ■ ' • ■ ■ ; ■' 

6.  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  110, 

erable  seepage  from  the  land  above  and  consequently  is 
too  alkaline  for  the  growing  of  grain  crops.  According  to 
the  farm  records  this  area  was  sowed  to  sweet  clover  in 
1908.  A fair  crop  was  harvested  in  1909  and  in  1910,  after 
the  writer  assumed  charge  of  the  work,  one  and  one-half 
tons  of  cured  hay  was  procured  from  this  area  from  one 
cutting.  A good  second  growth  was  made  but  a heavy  frost 
on  August  24  prevented  a second  cutting  and  no  seed  was 
produced.  In  the  spring  of  1911  no  sweet  clover  ap- 
peared. Sweet  clbver  is  a biennial  and  if  not  permitted 
to  go  to  seed  the  second  year  no  plants  will  appear  the 
year  following.  This  area  has  been  kept  in  sweet  clover  by 
reseeding  every  two  years.  By  this  method  a crop  has 
been  cut  each  year  until  1915. 

The  plots  on  this  land  were  broken  up  in  the  fall  of 
1914  and  in  the  spring  of  1915  were  seeded  to  sweet  clover 
with  a light  nurse  crop.  A good  growth  started  in  the 
spring  but  more  than  the  normal  rainfall  caused  excessive 
seepage  so  that  the  soil  became  saturated  and  the  seed 
Was  entirely  killed  out.  It  is  very  certain  that  sweet 
Clover  will  not  grow  on  soil  that  is  saturated.  A large 
body  of  water  standing  below  these  plots  prevented  drain- 
age. In  previous  years  there  was  sufficient  drainage  so 
that  the  water  table  was  at  least  two  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. This  area  received  no  irrigation,  the  seepage  from 
the  irrigated  land  above  providing  sufficient  moisture. 

Immediately  adjoining  this  area,  but  a little  higher,  i§ 
a piece  of  land  of  about  two  acres.  This  land  is  too  alka- 
line for  the  growing  of  grain  crops.  This  land  was  sowed 
to  sweet  clover  on  May  10,  1914,  at  the  rate  of  10  lbs.  of 
seed  per  acre.  The  ground  was  not  plowed,  the  seed 
being  drilled  shallowly  with  a Superior  grass  drill.  An 
excellent  stand  was  obtained  and  a good  growth  made  the 
first  year.  It  was  decided,  however,  not  to  cut  the  crop. 
;The  area  was  clipped  e^rly  in  the  season  to  keep  down 
the  weeds.  In  1915  growth  started  early  and  the  first  cut 
ting  Was  made^about  July  15,  a small  strip  being  left  for 
seed.  A second  cutting  was.  not  made.  The  second  crop 
was  about  two  feet  in  height  when  kilted  by  frost.  The 
first  cutting  yielded  at  the  rate  of  3 tons  of  cured  hay  to 
the  acre.  On  account  of  the  excessive  rainfall  and  cool 


Sept.  1916. 


Sweet  Clover. 


7. 


weather  the  plants  in  the  strip  left  for  seed  continued  to 
grow.  They  became  very  coarse  and  woody  but  did  not 
mature  seed.  At  the  altitude  of  the  station  the  first  crop 
if  allowed  to  stand  usually  produces  seed.  At  lower  alti- 
tudes of  the  state  a first  cutting  can  be  made  and  the  sec- 
ond cutting  kept  for  seed. 

Results  on  a Dry  Farm . 

On  May  4,  1911,  an  area  of  two  acres  was  sowed  to 
sweet  clover  on  the  Holliday  farm  near  Laramie,  where 
the  station  dry-farm  experiments  wTere  then  being  carried 
on.  This  crop  was  sowed  at  the  rate  of  10  pounds  per 
acre.  The  plants  made  considerable  growth  that  year  but 
not  sufficient  for  cutting.  One  acre  was  badly  covered 
by  blowing  sand;  the  other  acre  produced  3700  pounds  of 
hay  the  following  year.  Much  of  the  seed  on  the  sand- 
covered  acre  came  up  through  the  sand  the  .second  year, 
but  did  not  make  enough  growth  to  warrant  cutting.  The 
experiment  was  discontinued  the  end  of  the  second  sea- 
son, the  owner  taking  charge  of  the  land. 

Observations  in  various  parts  of  the  state  would  indi- 
cate that  sweet  clover  is  a good  dry-farm  crop.  In  most 
sections  at  least  one  crop  per  year  can  be  cut  and  in  many 
sections  two.  It  is  evident  that  it  will  make  a paying  crop 
on  land  far  too  dry  for  alfalfa. 

Effect  of  Compactness  of  the  Soil. 

In  the  spring  of  1914  some  experiments  with  sweet 
clover  along  definite  lines  were  begun.  The  purpose  of 
the  experiment  was  to  determine,  (1)  the  value  of  sweet 
clover  as  a fertilizer  for  crops  immediately  succeeding  it, 
and  (2)  its  value  in  a complete  crop  rotation.  Results  of 
these  experiments  cannot  yet  be  given.  Only  the  methods 
of  soil  preparation,  seeding  and  yields  can  be  discussed 
at  this  time.  Roth  the  wThite  and  the  yellow  varieties  were 
used  in  these  experiments  and,  so  far  as  the  work  has 
progressed,  it  wrould  seem  that  the  two  varieties  require 
the  same  treatment. 

For  the  fertility  experiment  one  of  the  acre  experi- 
ment plots  and  a triangular  plot  ox  one-half  acre  adjoin- 
ing it  wTere  selected.  One-half  of  the  acre  plot  was  devoted 


8.  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  110. 


to  the  growing  of  field  peas  and  alfalfa,  one-quarter  to 
white  and  one-quarter  to  yellow  sweet  clover.  The  tri- 
angular half-acre  plot  was  given  entirely  to  the  white 
sweet  clover. 

These  plots  were  uniform  as  to  kind  of  soil  and  amount 
of  barnyard  manure  received,  and  were  all  spring  plowed. 
The  seed  beds  were  prepared  and  seeding  was  done  on  the 
dates  as  follows,  the  plots  being  designated  as  Nos.  1, 
2 and  3 : 

April  18.  Plots  1 and  2 were  plowed  8 inches  deep, 
and  Plot  3 was  plowed  6 inches  deep. 

April  19.  Plots  were  harrowed  with  spiketooth. 

April  21.  Plots  were  harrowed  with  Acme. 

April  21.  Plots  were  harrowed  with  spiketooth. 

May  8.  Seeded  Plot  1 with  white  sweet  clover  at  the 
rate  of  10  lbs.  per  acre,  with’  1 bu.  oats  as  nurse  crop. 
Sweet  clover  seed  mixed  with  the  oats. 

May  8.  Seeded  Plot  2 with  yellow  sweet  clover  with- 
out. nurse  crop.  Seed  drilled  in  with  alfalfa  seeder. 

May  8.  Seeded  Plot  3 at  rate  of  8 lbs.  white  sweet 
clover  per  acre  with  1 bu.  oats.  Seeds  mixed  before  sow- 
ing. 

June  22.  Plots  given  first  irrigation. 

July  26.  Plots  given  second  irrigation. 

Oats  on  Plot  1 cut  for  hay.  Practically  no  stand  of 
sweet  clover  on  Plot  2. 

Aug.  10.  Harvested  oats  on  Plot  3.  A yield  of  785 
pounds  of  threshed  grain  on  the  half-acre.  There  was 
also  an  excellent  stand  of  sweet  clover  on  this  plot. 

Plots  1 and  2 were  plowed  in  the  fall  to  be  reseeded 
to  sweet  clover  in  the  spring  of  1915. 

The  Plots  1 and  2 were  worked  down  and  seeded  in  the 
spring  of  1915  at  the  same  rate  as  the  preceding  year  but 
no  stand  was  obtained. 

The  results  obtained  from  these  experiments  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  sweet  clover  will  not  do  as  well  on 
well  prepared  soil  as  on  that  less  well  prepared.  Packing 
seems  to  be  the  most  essential  thing. 


Sept.  1916. 


Sweet  Clover. 


9. 


Plots  1 and  2 were  looser  and  were  plowed  deeper  as 
they  had  been  in  grains  for  two  years  preceding  tlie  sweet 
clover  sowing.  Plot  3 had  been  in  alfalfa  and  the  soil 
was  much  more  compact  so  that  such  deep  plowing  was 
impossible  and  the  seed  bed  was  more  easily  compacted. 
Even  fall  plowing  on  Plots  1 and  2 did  not  compact  the 
soil  sufficiently  to  get  a good  stand. 


iftg.  3 — Sweet  cipver  on  cultivated  land,  showing  first  and 
second  growths. 


In  1915  Plot  3 gave  a yield  of  2930  pounds  of  cured 
hay  from  a measured  one-half  acre.  Only  one  cutting 
was  made.  This  cutting  was  made  on  July  20.  It  should 
have  been  made  two  weeks  earlier  as  the  clover  when 
cut  was  rather  coarse  for  hay.  Had  the  first  cutting 
been  made  at  the  earlier  date  two  cuttings  could  easily 
have  been  obtained.  As  it  was,  a good  second  growth 
was  made.  A strip  left  after  cutting  the  measured  area 
in  July  was  allowed  to  stand  for  seed.  It  grew  very  tall, 
but  on  account  of  cool  weather  and  rain  did  not  mature 
seed  before  frost.  The  first  and  second  growths  are 
shown  in  Figure  3. 

II.  How  to  Grow  Sweet  Clover. 

In  order  to  be  successful  in  growing  this  crop  one 
must  have  some  understanding  of  the  habits  and  require- 
ments of  the  plant.  With  this  knowledge  one  need  not 


10.  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  110. 

fail  in  growing  the  crop  nor  fear  that  it  will  become  a 
troublesome  weed.  The  main  essentials  to  be  observed  in 
order  to  obtain  a successful  stand  of  sweet  clover  are 
the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  and  the  selection  of  the 
seed. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. 

To  have  the  seed  bed  well  packed  is  the  essential  thing. 
Experiments  have  shown  and  reports  from  farmers  in 
various  parts  of  the  state  indicate  that  success  is  rarely 
attained  when  the  seed  is  sowed  on  new  plowing  and  on 
well  worked  soil.  A seed  bed  that  is  hard  below  with  just 
enough  loose  soil  on  top  to  cover  the  seed  is  best.  If 
there  is  sufficient  moisture  seed  may  be  sowed  broadcast 
on  the  sod  and  lightly  disked  in  enough  to  cover  it. 
Sweet  clover  seed  has  strong  viability  and  will  often  lie 
in  the  ground  a year  or  two  before  germinating.  It  takes 
considerable  time  for  moisture  to  penetrate  the  hard  seed 
coats.  Alternate  freezing  and  thawing  is  often  sufficient 
to  give  the  seed  the  needed  covering  of  soil.  This  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  sweet  clover  grows  well  on  the 
hard  roadways,  embankments,  etc.  There  is  more  dan- 
ger of  having  the  seed  bed  too  loose  than  too  hard  when 
trying  to  grow  sweet  clover  on  cultivated  land.  In  pre- 
paring land  for  sweet  clover  seeding,  such  tools  should 
be  used  as  will  only  work  the  surface  very  lightly. 

Methods  of  Seeding. 

Sweet  clover  seeds  itself  by  shattering,  from  the  plants 
and  lying  on  the  ground  through  the  winter.  Thus  it 
would  seem  that  the  seed  could  as  well  be  sown  in  the 
fall.  This  has  been  done  successfully  in  parts  of  the 
state.  The  sweet  clover  wTas  broadcasted  after  winter 
wheat  was  sowed.  The  time  of  sowing  does  not  matter 
so  much  if  the  seed  gets  moisture.  Seeding  may  be  done 
from  January  until  June.  Much  of  the  seed  will  not  ger- 
minate until  the  next  year  anyway.  Farmers  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state  repdrt  sowing  the  seed  during 
the  winter  on  the  snow  and  letting  it  sink  into  the 
ground.  This  can  be  done  if  winds  are  not  too  severe. 


Sweet  Clover. 


11 


Sept.  1916. 


Selection  of  seed  is  important.  Sweet  clover  seed  is 
often  gathered  in  waste  places  and  therefore  contains 
certain  weed  seeds.  Care  should  be  taken  that  only 
good  clean  seed  is  used.  Hulled  and  unhulled  seed  may 
be  obtained  upon  the  market.  It  does  , not  make  much 
difference  which  is  used.  The  unhulled  is  more  apt  tb 
contain  impurities.  On  the  other  hand  the  hulls  on  the 
Seed  may  help  to  gather  moisture  and  thus  help  ger- 
mination. Ten  pounds  of  good  clean  seed  is  sufficient  for 
sowing  one  acre  under  irrigated  conditions.  One-half 
this  amount  is  sufficient  for  the  dry  farm.  More  of  the 
unhulled  seed  should  be  used.  The  seed  may  be  drilled 
or  broadcasted.  If  drilled  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
CoVer  It  too  deep.  Sweet  clover  should  never  be  covered 
to  a depth  of  moke  than  half  an  inch.  Indculatioh  of 
either  the  soil  or  the  seed  is  not  necessary  in  Wyoming. 
See  Figure  4. 

T7°eatment>of  Hard  Seeds . 

Many  of  the  seeds  in  sweet  clover  have  hard  seed 
coats  which  are  difficult  for  moisture  to  penetrate. 
Therefore  some  of  the  seeds  are  very  slow  in  germinat- 
ing, many  in  fact  hot  germinating  until  the  following 
year  a±te:r  sowing.  Various  methods  of  treating  the 
seeds  to  soften  the  seed  coats  have  been  devised  with 
more  or  less  success.  It  is  doubtful  however,  if  any  bf 
the  methods  will  be  widely  adopted  by  the  farmers,  ns 
most  of  the  seeds  will  germinate  the  second  year  anyway. 

The  sulphuric  acid  treatment  probably  gives  the  best 
and  quickest  results.  This  method  consists  in  pouring 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  over  the  seed  and  stirring  for 
twenty  'minutes.  The  seed  Is  then  placed  under  running 
water  arid  washed  until  the  acid  is  thoroughly  washed 
but.  The  seed  is  then  dririd  and  planted.  Porcelain  or 
enameled  ware  should  be  used  as  the  acid  corrodes  any 


12.  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  110. 


other  substance.  Care  should  also  be  taken  that  the  acid 
does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  hands  or  clothing. 
Seed  given  this  treatment  in  field  ^experiments  of  the 
Station  made  a much  thicker  stand  the  first  year  after 
seeding  than  the  untreated  seed,  but  no  difference  could 
be  observed  in  the  field  the  second  year. 


Fig.  4 — Pet  cultures  to  show  effect  of  seed  treatment.  IA. — 
Untreated  seed.  IIA. — Inoculated  seed  (Nitragin).  IIIA. — Seed 
treated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  IVA. — Seed  coats  scarified. 


The  Iowa  State  College  has  a scarifying  machine 
which  makes  the  seed  coats  thinner  by  rubbing  them  over 
sand  paper.  A pound  of  seed  was  sent  there  for  treat- 
ment and  used  in  comparison  with  the  sulphuric  acid 
treated  and  untreated  seed.  This  showed  a marked  in- 
crease in  germination  over  the  untreated  seed  but  not  so 
good  as  the  seed  treated  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  scari- 
fying machine  will  probably  not  be  practicable  for  the 
average  farmer,  but  would  be  practicable  for  the  seed 
house  or  dealer.  Scarified  seed  could  be  put  on  the  mar- 
ket at  a slightly  advanced  price. 


Sept.  1916. 


Sweet  Clover. 


13. 


The  results  of  germination  tests  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


Germination  Tests  of  Siveet  Clover. 


No. 

100  Seeds  Each 

Number  cf  Seeds  Germinated 

In  1 day 

In  2 days 

In  4 days 

In  6 days 

Total  Per  Cent 

1. 

Untreated  Seed 

13 

45 

48 

48 

48 

2. 

Scarified 

42 

74 

78 

78 

78 

3. 

Acid  Treatment 

82 

87 

89 

89 

89 

No.  1.  Untreated  seed.  Just  as  it  came  from  the  dealer. 

No.  2.  Scar  ified  seed.  Treated  in  scarifying  machine  at  Iowa 
State  College. 

No.  3.  Treated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

In  the  pot  tests  shown  in  Figure  4 there  was  appar- 
ently no  increase  in  the  germination  of  the  scarified 
seed  over  the  untreated  seed.  A marked  difference  is 
shown,  however,  in  the  acid  treated  seed.  The  even  and 
dense  growth  shows  the  early  germination.  Apparently, 
however,  the  only  advantage  gained  in  the  treatment  of 
sweet  clover  seed  is  the  hastening  of  germination. 

III.  The  Products  of  Sweet  Clover. 

Sweet  Clover  for  Hay. 

Sweet  clover  when  cut  at  the  right  time  and  cured 
properly  makes  good  hay.  All  of  the  sweet  clover  raised 
at  the  agronomy  farm  the  past  five  years  has  been  used 
for  this  purpose.  It  has  usually  been  stacked  near  the 
corral  and  fed  to  the  horses  when  they  were  running  out. 
The  1915  crop  was  taken  to  the  stock  farm  and  used  in  a 
feeding  experiment. 

Sweet  clover  for  hay  should  be  cut  before  the  stems 
begin  to  get  woody.  Just  before  blossoming  begins  is 
about  the  right  time.  It  cures  slowly.  At  the  station 
the  plan  has  been  to  rake  into  windrows  about  a half  a 
day  after  cutting,  and  put  up  in  shocks.  It  is  allowed  to 
cure  in  the  shock.  The  curing  takes  about  four  or  five 
days  of  good  weather,  about  the  same  as  alfalfa  cured  in 
this  way.  By  this  method  few  of  the  leaves  are  lost.  If 
salt  is  sprinkled  on  when  put  in  the  stack  the  quality  is 
improved  and  stock  eat  it  better. 


14.  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  110. 


Siveet  Clover  for  Pasture . 

A number  of  farmers  have  reported  good  results  from 
using  sweet  clover  for  pasture.  It  has  proven  better  than 
alfalfa  for  this  purpose  in  dry  farm  sections  and  very  lit- 
tle trouble  from  bloat  has  been  reported.  It  should  not 
be  pastured  too  close  and  some  new  seed  should  be  scat- 
tered over  the  ground  every  year  so  that  the  pasture  will 
be  permanent.  So  far,  the  Wyoming  station  has  con- 
ducted no  experiment  to  test  the  pasture  value  of  sweet 
clover.  ** 

Sireet  Clover  for  Seed . 

In  many  parts  of  the  state  sweet  clover  produces  an 
abundant  seed  crop,  and  saving  the  seed  is  profitable,  as 
the  market  demand  for  it  is  good.  If  seed  is  harvested 
from  waste  places  where  a mower  or  binder  cannot  be 
used,  the  plants  can  be  cut  by  hand  or  with  a scythe  and 
tied  up  in  bundles.  These  when  cured  can  be  threshed. 
Sweet  clover  should  be  cut  for  seed  when  most  of  the 
heads  have  turned  dark.  A binder  may  be  used  in  larger 
fields  and  the  bundles  shocked  like  small  grain.  The  seed 
shatters  badly  when  dry;  therefore  the  bundles  must  be 
handled  carefully.  It  is  better,  if  possible,  to  harvest  it 
when  slightly  damp.  It  must  be  thoroughly  dry,  however, 
when  threshed. 


Sept.  1916. 


Sweet  Clover. 


15. 


CONCLUSIONS. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  sweet  clover  is  a good 
crop  for  Wyoming  conditions.  The  following  points  may 
be  stated  in  its  favor : 

It  prepares  heavy,  hard  and  poor  soils  for  the  growing 
of  alfalfa. 

It  is  a good  fertilizer,  adding  both  nitrogen  and  hu- 
mus to  the  soil,  when  plowed  under  as  green  manure. 

It  has  a high  feeding  value.  Analyses  show  that  it 
has  nearly  as  much  protein  and  more  fat  than  alfalfa. 

It  will  grow  on  land  too  wet  or  too  dry  for  alfalfa. 

It  is  more  alkali-resistant  than  alfalfa. 

It  can  be  grown  successfully  under  irrigation  or  on 
the  dry  farm. 

It  seeds  freely  under  both  of  the  above  conditions. 

It  makes  an  excellent  pasture  and  a first  class  green 
manure. 

It  does  best  on  soils  that  contain  plenty  of  lime. 

It  is  a weed  in  waste  places  only.  It  never  damages 
cultivated  crops. 

o 

Those  desiring  a more  extended  discussion  of  the  va- 
rieties and  history  of  sweet  clover  are  referred  to  Farm- 
ers’ Bulletin  485  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


BULLETIN  NO.  Ill 


DECEMBER,  1916 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


ALFALFA  IN  WYOMING 

By  T.  S.  Parsons 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request 
Address : Director  Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 
Officers 


TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B President 

MARY  B.  DAVID Vice  President 

C.  D.  SPALDING Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

Executive  Committee 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 


Appointed  Members  Expires 

1911 HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH,  B.  S 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911 HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A 1921 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915  HON.  J.  M.  CAREY,  LL.  B 1921 

EDITH  K.  O.  CLARK,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL 


C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D. . . . 
HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M. 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A 

C.  D.  MOIR 

A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,  M.  S 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

J W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

O.  A.  BEATH,  M.  A 

P.  T.  MEYERS,  B.  S.  A 

E H.  LEHNERT,  D.  V.  S. .. 


President 

Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

Secretary 

Clerk 

Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

Research  Chemist 

Wool  Specialist 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Parasitologist 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Agronomist 

Veterinarian 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming 


BY  T.  S.  PARSONS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Alfalfa  is  pre-eminently  the  great  forage  crop  of  the  semi- 
arid  regions.  The  crop  is  now  so  well  known  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  that  any  discussion  of  its  history  is  unnecessary 
here.  It  is  grown  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
acreage  is  rapidly  increasing.  In  1899  the  United  States  had 
a total  of  2,094,011  acres  in  alfalfa.  In  1912  this  had  increased 
to  4,707,136  acres,  or  an  increase  of  over  100  per  cent  in  15 
years. 

The  increase  in  acreage  in  Wyoming  has  probably  been 
proportionately  as  great,  as  the  crop  does  exceptionally  well 
under  Wyoming  conditions  where  water  is  available  for  irri- 
gation, and  with  the  development  of  hardier  and  more  drought- 
resistant  varieties,  it  is  becoming  increasingly  important  on 
the  dry  farm. 

Permanent  and  prosperous  farming  demands  the  growing 
and  feeding  of  some  legume.  No  other  legume  is  as  valuable 
or  as  well  adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  state  as 
alfalfa.  No  other  legume,  with  the  possible  exception  of  field 
peas  and  sweet  clover,  possesses  like  qualities  of  resistance  to 
drought  and  cold,  and  yield.  Being  a hardy  perennial,  main- 
taining itself  for  several  years  when  once  established,  and  pro- 
ducing a heavy  growth  of  forage  high  in  protein  makes  alfalfa 
the  greatest  of  all  forage  crops  for  Wyoming  conditions.  It 
not  only  furnishes  an  abundance  of  forage,  but  is  a soil  builder 
of  the  highest  order.  Two  cuttings  per  year  may  be  obtained 
in  all  parts  of  the  state  under  irrigation  and  in  the  more  favored 
sections  three  crops  are  obtained,  with  a considerable  growth 


20  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


of  pasture.  By  the  growing  of  alfalfa  the  lands  of  Wyoming 
can  be  made  to  produce  double.  Conditions  here  are  much  the 
same  as  they  were  years  ago  in  Colorado  and  Utah.  Not  until 
the  fields  of  these  states  were  made  fertile  by  alfalfa  could  po- 
tatoes, melons,  and  apples  be  profitably  produced. 

Alfalfa  is  a good  crop  for  improving  and  maintaining  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  provided  the  crop  is  fed  on  the  farm  and 
the  manure  properly  conserved  and  returned  to  the  soil  with 
such  other  materials  as  may  be  required.  Since  alfalfa  is 
classed  as  a nitrogen  gatherer  and  a soil  builder,  many  errone- 
ous ideas  concerning  the  plant  have  arisen.  It  is  not  a crop 
adapted  to  poor  land.  Under  proper  conditions  it  gets  a pare 
of  its  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  by  means  of  the  bacteria  on 
its  roots  stores  some  of  it  up  in  the  soil.  If,  however,  the  soil 
is  not  well  supplied  with  humus,  so  that  conditions  are  favor- 
able to  the  development  of  bacteria,  the  alfalfa  will  use  up  the 
nitrogen  as  well  as  the  other  plant  foods  in  the  soil. 

Examinations  of  the  roots  of  alfalfa  plants  growing  in 
soils  on  the  Experiment  Station  farm,  low  in  humus,  have 
shown  the  nitrogen  nodules  to  be  absent,  while  those  plants 
growing  on  soils  well  supplied  with  humus  had  a plentiful 
supply  of  nodules  on  the  roots. 

I,  Choosing  the:  Se:kd. 

Alfalfa  Varieties. 

The  botanical  name  of  alfalfa  is  Medicago  sativa  L.  All 
the  different  varieties,  or  strains,  have  originated  from  this,  and 
are  only  distinct  from  this  and  from  each  other  so  far  as  habits 
of  growth,  hardiness,  and  productivity  are  concerned.  Nine 
varieties  have  been  grown  at  the  Wyoming  Station  during  the 
past  six  years,  in  order  to  study  these  variations.  Some  of 
these  varieties  show  contrasts  of  decidedly  practical  value,  such 
as  hardiness,  habits  of  stooling,  resistance  to  frost,  drought  and 
diseases,  and  leafy  hay  qualities,  i.  e.,  the  proportion  of  leaves 
to  stems  in  the  hay.  The  names  of  these  varieties  and  the 
yields  for  five  years  are  given  in  Table  I. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming, 


21 


S^UB[d  U93JS 
01  mSt3AS.  -AY 


SJB3j{  g ‘3J0B 
jad  piaiit  'Ay 


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Q 

>s 


9 JOB  J9d 

PPIA 


llllllllll 


pX  1888868838 

dojo 

4SJXJ 

IJS8S3S833S 

9J0B  J9d 

PlaTA 

lbs. 

6300 

6950 

10400 

5750 

6300 

5900 

8800 

eenn 

10100 

dojo 

PU009S 

lbs. 
600 
690  ! 
900 
520  1 
580 
510 
850 

Q/IA  I 

1200 

dojo 

^sjm 

ajoB  jgd 
PPJA 

lbs. 
6300 
8050 
11100  ] 
6150 
6150 
5700 
9625 
81501 
9720 

dojo  1 

pU009g  | 

illsliiii 

1240 

doio  I 
| 

; |888S83i6§ 

9J0B  J9d 

PIaIA 

lbs. 

11250 

11175 

11475 

8500 

5750 

10075 

5700 

mnn 

9640 

doao  1 
puooag  | 

lbs. 

1070 

1100 

1110 

800 

510 

975 

500 

1050 

1150 

dojo  1 
| 

Jllpip! 

1260 

9J0B  J9d  1 

PIaTA  | 

lbs. 
10700 
10750 
11250 
7750 
5875 
9975  ! 
5725 
11975 

doao 

puooag 

111888388 

dojo 

4SJTli 


22  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 

A study  of  the  table  shows  the  Grimm  to  be  considerably 
in  the  lead.  There  are  reasons  for  this.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  Turkestan,  Sand  Lucern,  Grimm,  and  Montana  varie- 
ties stood  nearly  the  same  for  the  first  two  years.  The  winter 
of  1912-13  was  very  severe  on  alfalfa,  and  all  of  the  varieties 
except  the  Grimm  were  winterkilled  in  varying  degrees.  This 
hardy  variety  showed  no  winterkilling  at  all  and  has  proved 
perfectly  hardy  ever  since.  The  yield  of  1915  was  lowered  by 
late  spring  frosts,  affecting  the  first  cutting.  The  dry-grown 
seed  had  its  conditions  changed  by  irrigation,  therefore  the 
comparison  in  this  test  is  hardly  fair.  The  above  yields  are 
reckoned  on  the  basis  of  one-fifth  acre  plots.  Twenty-six 
ether  varieties  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture were  grown  in  rows,  while  native  seed  has  been  sowed 
each  year  in  comparatively  large  fields  and  under  varying  con- 
ditions to  determine  the  best  time  of  seeding,  the  best  amount 
of  seed  to  sow,  and  the  best  kind  of  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed,  and  also  to  study  the  methods  of  caring  for  and  harvest- 
ing the  crop  and  methods  for  the  successful  production  of  seed. 

Alfalfa  Types. 

Questions  often  asked  are:  “Why  does  one  variety  of 

alfalfa  stand  through  the  winter  better  than  another?’’  “Why 
does  one  variety  yield  more  per  acre  ?”  and  “Why  is  the  Grimm 
better  than  the  other  varieties?”  The  preceding  table  shows 
the  Grimm  to  have  averaged  0.69  tons  per  acre  more  than  the 
best  of  the  other  varieties,  and  it  has  showed  no  winter- 
killing.  Therefore,  the  question  arises,  Has  the  type  of  the 
plant  anything  to  do  with  its  hardiness  ? Probably  it  has.  An- 
other question  also  is  often  asked : “Is  the  Grimm  of  suf- 

ficiently higher  value  to  pay  the  advanced  price  asked  for  its 
seed  ?”  Probably  not,  provided  the  farmer  can  get  good  north- 
ern-grown alfalfa  seed  at  a reasonable  price. 

The  study  of  types,  however,  is  an  important  one.  The 
farmer  is  interested  in  the  one  that  will  make  the  most  hay. 
Will  the  Grimm  do  this?  Results  show  that  it  does,  on  ac- 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


23 


count  of  its  resistance  to  winterkilling.  If  there  were  the  same 
number  of  plants  per  acre  it  would  not  yield  better  than  some  of 
ihe  other  varieties,  but  usually  more  of  the  plants  of  the  Grimm 
stand  from  year  to  year.  It  has  not,  however,  a great  advan- 
tage if  the  cost  of  . seed  and  the  yield  per  acre  are  compared. 
At  the  Colorado  Station  the  Baltic.  variety  outyielded  the 
Grimm,  while  the  Liscom  is  recommended  by  Montana  grow- 
ers. These  two  varieties  are  much  like  the  Grimm  in  character 
and  habits  of  growth.  They  are  undoubtedly  of  the  same 
origin  as  the  Grimm,  both  having  come  from  Minnesota,  where 
the  Grimm  variety  originated. 


Fig.  2 — One-year-old  Common 
Alfalfa 


Fig.  1 — One-year-old  Grimm 
Alfalfa 


24  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 

The  habits  of  the  Grimm,  however,  commend  it  to  favor. 
Its  heavy  stooling  habit  produces  finer  stems  and  a more  leafy 
hay.  The  underground  shoots  and  feeding  roots  make  it  very 
hardy  and  resistant  to  winterkilling  and  late  spring  frosts.  A 
study  of  the  cuts  (Figs,  i and  2)  of  the  one-year-old  plants 
of  the  Grimm  and  the  common  variety  shows  this  habit  of 
growth  in  the  Grimm  plant,  and  its  heavy  root  system  as  com- 
pared with  the  other.  The  Grimm  is  undoubtedly  the  best  for 
dry-farm  conditions.  Less  seed  of  this  variety  is  required  per 
acre  and  it  is  a heavy  seed  producer.  Even  at  the  high  price 
of  the  Grimm  seed  at  the  present  time,  it  would  undoubtedly 
pay  the  farmer  to  sow  a small  amount  and  produce  seed  for 
the  planting  of  larger  areas. 

Choice  of  Variety. 

There  are  so  many  varieties  and  strains  advertised  at  the 
present  time  that  the  farmer  is  at  a loss  to  know  which  one  to 
plant.  The  fancy  varieties  are  so  high  priced  that  they  are  al- 
most out  of  the  question  for  general  use.  (There  are  certain 
factors  that  should  be  kept  in  mind  when  selecting  alfalfa  seed : 

The  native-grown  seed  will  be  better  for  local  conditions 
than  fancy,  imported  seeds. 

The  farmer  need  not  concern  himself  seriously  in  the 
choice  of  seed  further  than  to  try  to  get  that  which  is  locally 
grown. 

If  he  cannot  do  this,  he  should  get  good,  viable,  and  pure 
northern-grown  seed.  The  native  Wyoming,  Montana,  or  Da- 
kota seed  is  well  adapted  to  Wyoming  conditions  and  will  do 
as  well  or  better  than  many  of  the  highly  advertised  fancy 
strains.  If  one  desires  to  try  the  Grimm  or  some  of  the  other 
varieties,  he  can  do  so  on  a small  scale  and  at  not  too  great 
expense. 

In  buying  one  should  be  certain  as  to  the  source  of  the 
seed  and  under  no  circumstances  buy  southern-grown  seed. 

Seed  should  be  purchased  from  guaranteed  sample  and 
the  sample  should  be  sent  to  the  Seed  Commissioner  for  test 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


25 


as  to  purity  and  germination.  ) The  Dai-ry,  Food  and  Oil  De- 
partment at  Cheyenne  maintains  a seed-testing  department, 
where  the  testing  is  done  free  of  charge  by  the  State  Agrono- 
mist. Every  farmer  should  avail  himself  of  this  service,  espe- 
cially where  purchasing  alfalfa  seed.  Alfalfa  seed  should  be 
plump,  of  good,  bright  color,  and  entirely  free  from  weed 
seeds. 


Fig.  3 — Grimm  Alfalfa 


The  Wyoming  Seed  Lai v. 

Since  the  adoption  of  the  state  pure  seed  law  the  quality 
of  the  alfalfa  seed  sold  within  the  state  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved. Outside  dealers  no  longer  ship  low-grade  alfalfa 
seed  into  the  state.  The  law  of  Wyoming  requires  that  alfalfa 
seed  shall  pass  a purity  test  of  96  per  cent  and  a germination 
test  of  85  per  cent  and  must  be  entirely  free  from  the  seed  of 
dodder  and  other  noxious  weeds.  Alfalfa  seed  that  is  not  up 
to  this  standard  cannot  be  offered  for  sale  in  the  state. 


26 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


The  large  seed  houses  and  dealers  have  complied  readily 
with  the  law,  but  many  farmers  are  still  careless  in  purchasing 
and  selling  seed  among  themselves.  From  March  i to  May  i, 
1915,  one  hundred  and  thirty  samples  of  alfalfa  seed  were 
tested  by  the  State  Agronomist.  Many  of  these  were  of  low 
grade,  but  were  comparatively  free  from  weed  seeds,  so  that 
most  of  them  were  passed.  The  season  of  1915  was  unfavor- 
able to  the  production  of  alfalfa  seed.  Therefore,  much  in- 
ferior seed  was  offered  for  the  spring  sowing  of  1916.  All 
alfalfa  seed  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  graded  before 
being  offered  for  sale. 

II.  Alfalfa  Experiments  at  the  Wyoming  Station, 
1911-1915.  { 

The  writer  took  charge  of  the  agronomy  work  at  the  Wyo- 
ming Experiment  Station  on  March  1,  1910.  At  that  time  the 
varieties  listed  in  Table  I were  growing  in  quarter-acre  sub- 
divisions of  Plots  30  and  31,  having  been  seeded  under  the 
supervision  of  Mr.  L.  B.  McWethy,  who  was  then  the  Station 
Agronomist.  The  varieties  on  Plot  30  were,  Turkestan,  Sand 
Eucern,  Grimm,  and  Provence  France;  and  those  on  Plot  31 
were,  Utah  Seed,  German  Seed,  Dry  Grown  Seed,  Montana 
Seed,  and  Native  Seed.  The  crowding  of  other  work  and 
unfavorable  conditions,  such  as  lack  of  irrigation  water  and 
a severe  freeze  in  August,  so  hindered  the  work  of  1910  that 
the  results  of  that  year  are  not  included  in  this  bulletin.  The 
work  was  better  in  hand  by  1911,  and  so  the  experiments  here 
discussed  begin  with  that  year. 

A field  of  15  acres  at  the  south  end  of  the  farm  was  also 
in  alfalfa.  Much  of  this  field  needs  leveling  and  the  lower 
parts  are  affected  with  alkali,  so  that  the  stand  is  somewhat 
thin.  A part  of  this  field  has  been  broken  up  and  reseeded, 
and  new  areas  have  been  seeded  each  year. 

Alfalfa  Work  in  ipn . 

The  crop  of  1911  was  a great  improvement  over  that  of 
1910.  The  first  crop  was  injured  to  some  extent  by  improper 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


27 


irrigation,  but  the  second  crop  came  on  well,  so  that  the  total 
yield  for  the  year  was  good.  There  was  no  winterkilling  in 
any  of  the  varieties  and  but  little  difference  in  the  yields  of 
the  several  varieties.  (See  Table  I.)  This  year  the  alfalfa 
renovator  was  use<J  for  the  first  time  to  the  great  improvement 
of  the  crop.  The  benefits  of  renovating  were  most  apparent 
in  the  south  field,  where  there  was  a good  deal  of  foxtail  and 
ether  weeds  in  the  alfalfa.  All  of  the  alfalfa  received  two 
irrigations  during  the  season — one  after  growth  had  started  in 
the  spring  and  one  after  the  first  cutting. 

Work  on  Plots. 

April  25.  Plots  renovated. 

May  27.  Crop  growing  well.  Plants  not  noticeably  affected  by 
spring  frosts.  Height  6 inches  at  this  date. 

June  6-7.  Plots  given  first  irrigation. 

July  5.  Plants  about  one-half  in  bloom. 

July  8.  First  cutting.  Hay  cured  in  shock  4 days. 

July  17-25.  Plots  given  second  irrigation. 

Aug.  1.  First  bloom  on  second  crop. 

Aug.  22.  Second  cutting.  Cured  4 days  in  shock. 

At  the  time  these  plots  were  sowed  in  1909,  duplicate  plots 
were  sowed.  These  were  not  uniform  nor  good  yielders  on 
account  of  having  been  used  for  an  experiment  to  determine 
the  best  time  of  sowing  the  seed  after  plowing.  These  plots 
were  broken  up  in  the  fall  of  1911  to  be  used  for  other  pur- 
poses. 


Alfalfa  Work  in  1912. 

In  the  spring  of  1912  some  cooperative  work  in  testing  of 
varieties  was  taken  up  with  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Twelve  samples  of  seed  were  received  for  this 
purpose  and  these  were  sowed  on  the  part  of  the  agronomy 
farm  known  as  Field  A,  on  Plot  18. 

In  some  cases  there  was  sufficient  seed  to  plant  one  drill 
width  across  the  plot  and  in  other  cases  there  was  only  suffi- 
cient seed  to  plant  one  row.  Table  II  gives  a list  of  the  varie- 
ties sowed  and  their  departmental  numbers  and  time  of  seeding. 


28 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


Fig.  4 — Grimm  Alfalfa  on  left;  Ordinary  on  right.  Note  weeds  on 
right,  showing  alfalfa  winter-killed 


Table:  II — Showing  Date  of  Seeding  of  Alfalfa  Varieties  Planted  in 

Rows,  1912. 


No. 

Name 

S.  P.I.No. 

Date  planted 

Remarks 

1 

Sand  Lucern 

23481 

May  20 

1 

2 

Turkestan 

24352 

May  20 

[ Plowed  up  in 

3 

Turkestan 

23203 

May  20 

r 1913 

4 

Corn  Alfalfa 

29212 

May  20 

J 

5 

North  Grown  

32279 

May  25 

] 

6 

Turkestan 

21032 

May  25 

1 

7 

Grimm 

29987 

May  25 

1 

8 

Turkestan 

22788 

May  25 

1 Kept  with  oth- 

9 

Turkestan 

22790 

May  25 

}-  er  varieties 

10 

Mcdicago  falcata  .... 

30436 

May  25 

1 for  seed 

11 

Medicago  falcata  .... 

30009 

May  25 

1 

12 

Medicago  falcata  .... 

28071 

May  25 

1 

13 

Medicago  falcata  .... 

31703 

May  25 

J 

The  first  four  varieties  in  Table  II  did  not  make  a good 
stand,  the  seed  being  of  poor  quality,  therefore  they  were 
plowed  up  in  1913,  in  order  that  the  land  might  be  used  for 
other  variety  tests. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


29 


The  seed  was  slow  in  coming  up,  the  season  being  rather 
dry,  and  it  was  not  desirable  to  irrigate  until  late.  The  varie- 
ties planted  in  rows  were  cultivated  and  all  the  varieties  were 
given  one  irrigation  during  the  season. 

The  varieties  showed  a great  deal  of  variation  in  height, 
stooling  habits,  color  of  bloom,  etc.  All  of  the  varieties 
bloomed  quite  freely,  but  only  a few  of  them  produced  seed, 
the  blossoms  appearing  to  blight  when  about  in  full  bloom. 
All  of  the  new  seeding,  except  the  first  four  numbers,  entered 
the  winter  in  good  condition. 

Work  in  Variety  Plots,  1912. 

The  quarter-acre  variety  plots  came  through  the  winter 
with  apparently  no  winterkilling.  The  late  spring  frosts, 
however,  retarded  the  growth  of  the  first  cutting  somewhat. 
The  following  is  the  record  of  the  work  for  the  year: 

plot  30. 

March  28.  Renovated  the  plots. 

June  8.  Alfalfa  varieties  growing  slowly  on  account  of  cool 
weather. 

June  17.  Season  late  and  growth  of  all  varieties  except  Grimm 
retarded  by  frosts.  Plots  given  first  irrigation. 

June  22.  All  varieties  growing  rapidly  since  irrigation. 

June  8.  Alfalfa  beginning  to  bloom.  Height  of  Provence  France, 
2 ft.  4 in.,  about  4 in.  taller  than  other  varieties. 

July  16.  Grimm  and  Sand  Tucern  one-third  in  bloom.  Height, 
2 ft.  2 in. 

July  20.  Cut  Grimm  and  Sand  Lucern,  height  30  in. 

July  21.  Turkestan  in  half  bloom  and  Provence  France  one- 
third  in  bloom. 

July  22.  Cut  Provence  France  and  Turkestan.  Height  of  former, 
30  in.  Height  of  latter,  25  in. 

All  varieties  were  raked  soon  after  cutting,  with  side  delivery 
rake,  and  cured  in  the  shock.  (For  yields,  see  Table  I.) 

Aug.  13.  Weather  favorable  and  all  the  alfalfa  varieties  are  grow- 
ing rapidly. 

Aug.  22.  Plots  given  second  irrigation. 

Sept.  5.  Cut  second  crop.  Hay  cured  in  shock.  (For  yields,  see 
Table  I.) 

PLOT  31. 

March  28.  Renovated  the  plots. 

June  5.  Alfalfa  varieties  all  growing  slowly  on  account  of  cold 
weather. 

June  17.  Varieties  all  affected  by  frost. 

Plots  given  first  irrigation. 


30 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


June  28.  All  varieties  growing  rapidly. 

June  8.  Montana  and  Dry  Grown  seed  5 in.  higher  than  German 
and  Utah  seed.  Height  of  former  24  in.  Height  of  latter,  19  in. 

July  12.  Dry  Grown  and  German  seed  beginning  to  bloom. 

July  16.  Montana  seed  beginning  to  bloom. 

July  21.  Varieties  about  one-half  in  bloom. 

July  22.  Cut  Dry  Grown,  German  and  Utah  seed. 

July  23.  Cut  Montana  seed. 

All  plots  raked  green  with  side  delivery  rake  and  cured  in  shock. 

(For  yields,  see  Table  I.) 

Alfalfa  Work,  1913. 

The  winter  of  1912-1913  was  very  severe  on  winter 
grains  and  alfalfa.  Much  winterkilling  was  reported  from  all 
parts  of  the  state.  At  the  Station  most  of  the  plot  varieties 
showed  various  degrees  of  winterkilling;  the  Grimm  being 
the  only  variety  that  appeared  to  be  absolutely  hardy  and  re- 
sistant to  winterkilling. 

In  1911  seeding  of  government  varieties  on  Plot  18  came 
through  the  winter  with  some  loss.  The  remaining  plants, 
however,  made  good  growth  and  produced  a fair  crop  for  new 
seeding.  The  varieties  were  mowed  July  30.  No  record  of 
yields  was  kept.  The  plots  were  irrigated  immediately  after 
the  first  cutting.  The  varieties  were  not  cut  the  second  time, 
being  allowed  to  grow  through  the  balance  of  the  season.  At 
rhe  time  of  killing  frosts,  September  12,  the  varieties  averaged 
cbbout  12  inches  in  height  and  were  just  beginning  to  bloom. 

plot  30. 

March  29.  Renovated  the  plots. 

May  3.  Alfalfa  just  starting  to  grow. 

May  23.  Irrigated  the  plots. 

June  4.  All  of  the  varieties  growing  very  rapidly. 

June  28.  Grimm  beginning  to  bloom. 

June  29.  Sand  Lucern  beginning  to  bloom. 

July  1.  Turkestan  beginning  to  bloom. 

July  2.  Provence  France  beginning  to  bloom. 

July  3.  Plot  given  second  irrigation. 

July  8.  Provence  France  29  in.  high,  and  one-third  in  bloom. 
Grimm  28  in.  high,  and  one-half  in  bloom.  Turkestan  27  in.  high,  and 
one-fourth  in  bloom. 

July  10.  Cut  all  varieties,  raked  with  side  delivery  rake  and  cured 
it  in  shock. 

(For  yields,  see  Table  I.) 

Yields  of  all  varieties  except  Grimm  lighter  this  year  on  account 
of  winter  killing. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


31 


July  24.  Heavy  rain  fell,  causing  rapid  growth  of  alfalfa. 

Aug.  5.  Plots  given  third  irrigation.  , 

Second  crop  apparently  coming  on  better  than  first  crop. 

Aug.  12.  Turkestan  beginning  to  bloom. 

Aug.  14.  Sand  Lucern  beginning  to  bloom. 

Aug.  15.  Grimm  beginning  to  bloom. 

Aug.  29.  Second  cutting  cured  same  as  first  crop.  (For  yields, 
see  Table  I.) 

PI.OT  31. 

March  29.  Renovated  the  plots. 

May  3.  Alfalfa  varieties  just  starting  to  grow. 

May  25.  Plots  given  first  irrigation. 

June  4.  All  varieties  growing  rapidly.  No  injury  from  spring 
frosts  this  year. 

July  9.  Montana  seed  28  in.  high  and  one-fourth  in  bloom. 

Dry  Grown  seed  31  in.  high  and  one-half  in  bloom. 

German  seed  25  in.  high  and  one-half  in  bloom. 

Utah  seed  28  in.  high  and  one-half  in  bloom. 

July  10.  Cut  all  varieties.  Raked  with  side  delivery  and  cured  in 
shock. 

(For  yields,  see  Table  I.) 

July  24.  Heavy  rain  on  this  date,  causing  alfalfa  to  grow  rapidly. 

Aug.  6.  Plots  given  third  irrigation. 

Aug.  9.  All  varieties  appear  better  than  before  first  cutting. 

Aug.  15.  Montana  seed  beginning  to  bloom. 

Aug.  17.  German  seed  beginning  to  bloom. 

Aug.  18.  Utah  seed  beginning  to  bloom. 

Aug.  19.  Dry  Grown  seed  beginning  to  bloom. 

Aug.  29.  Cut  all  varieties  and  cured  as  Plot  30. 

(For  yield,  see  Table  I.) 

Alfalfa  Work , 1914. 

Varieties  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri7 
culture  left  from  last  year  stood  winter  well.  These  and  the 
row  varieties  were  given  no  irrigation  during  the  season.  The 
plants  were  allowed  to  stand  until  seed  was  matured. 

PLOT  30. 

May  26.  Alfalfa  varieties  all  growing  rapidly;  no  injury  from 
spring  frost. 

June  6.  Plot  given  first  irrigation. 

June  26.  First  blossoms  appearing.  Turkestan  28  in.  high.  Sand 
Lucern  33  in.  high.  Grimm  29  in.  high.  Provence  France  28  in.  high. 

July  6.  Cut  all  varieties.  Turkestan  one-fourth  in  bloom.  Sand 
Lucern  one-third  in  bloom.  Grimm  one-half  in  bloom.  Provence 
France  one-fourth  in  bloom. 

(For  yield,  see  Table  I.) 

Weight  of  ten  individual  plants  at  second  cutting:  Turkestan,  48 
oz. ; one-fourth  winterkilled.  Sand  Lucern,  28  oz. ; one-third  winter- 
killed.  Grimm,  48  oz. ; perfect  stand.  Provence  France,  30  oz. ; one- 
fourth  winterkilled. 


32  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


The  winterkilling  was  the  result  of  the  cold  winter  of  1912  and 

1913.  There  was  apparently  no  winterkilling  in  the  winter  of  1913  and 

1914. 

July  20.  Plots  given  second  irrigation. 

Aug.  6.  Blossoming  for  second  crop. 

Aug.  13.  Turkestan  one-eighth  in  bloom  ; height  23  in.  Sand 
Lucern  one-sixth  in  bloom;  height  24  in.  Grimm  one-fourth  in  bloom; 
height  25  in.  Provence  France  one-sixth  in  bloom ; height  25  in. 

Aug.  15.  Made  second  cutting.  This  was  unusually  early  for  the 
second  cutting,  but  the  season  was  very  favorable  and  growth  rapid. 

(For  yield,  see  Table  I.) 

Sept.  2.  Third  growth,  4 in.  high. 

Sept.  12..  First  killing  frost.  Alfalfa  then  14  in.  high.  Usually 
there  is  but  little  growth  after  the  second  cutting. 

PLOT  31. 

May  20.  Reseeded  bare  places  in  plots. 

May  25.  Alfalfas  all  growing  very  rapidly;  no  injury  from  spring 
frosts. 

June  27.  First  blossoms  appearing. 

July  6.  Mowed  the  plot.  Utah  seed  one-fourth  in  bloom,  27  in. 
high.  German  seed  one-fourth  in  bloom  and  26  in.  high.  Dry  Grown 
seed  one-third  in  bloom  and  27  in.  high.  Montana  seed  one-third  in 
bloom  and  25  in.  high. 

Weight  of  10  green  plants  at  second  cutting:  Utah  seed,  26  oz. ; 
one-third  winterkilled.  German  seed,  32  oz. ; one-fourth  winter- 
killed.  Dry  Grown  seed,  24  oz. ; one-fifth  winterkilled.  Montana  seed, 
24  oz. ; one-sixth  winterkilled. 

July  21.  Plots  given  second  irrigation. 

Aug.  3.  Blossoms  appearing  for  second  crop. 

Aug.  14.  Utah  seed  one-sixth  in  bloom  and  24  in.  high.  German 
seed  one-fourth  in  bloom  and  24  in.  high.  Dry  Grown  seed  one-fourth 
in  bloom  and  25  in.  high.  Montana  seed  one-sixth  in  bloom  and  24 
in.  high. 

Aug.  15.  Second  cutting. 

(For  yields,  see  Table  I.) 

Sept.  12.  Killing  frost.  Third  crop  14  in.  high. 

New  Alfalfa  Seeding,  IQ14. 

Some  new  areas  were  seeded  to  alfalfa  in  1914  to  test 
various  methods  of  sowing,  namely,  sowing  with  and  without 
a nurse  crop  and  on  fall  and  spring  plowing. 

On  May  25,  one-quarter  of  an  acre  on  Plot  32  was  sowed 
to  alfalfa  alone  at  the  rate  of  10  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  An- 
other quarter  acre  on  the  same  plot  was  sowed  to  alfalfa  at 
the  same  rate  with  oats  as  a nurse  crop.  The  land  was  spring 
plowed.  The  alfalfa  sowed  alone  was  broadcasted  and  har- 
rowed in,  while  that  with  the  nurse  crop  was  drilled.  An  ex* 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


33 


cellent  stand  was  obtained  from  the  seed  sowed  alone,  but  no 
stand  was  obtained  from  that  sowed  with  the  nurse  crop. 
There  is  danger  in  drilling  alfalfa  of  getting  it  covered  too 
deeply  when  sowed  with  a nurse  crop.  This  is  especially  true 
when  sowing  in  spring  plowing. 

On  Field  B an  area  of  four  acres  was  plowed  in  the  fall 
of  1912,  and  summer-fallowed  in  the  summer  of  1913  to  pre- 
pare it  for  alfalfa.  These  acre  plots  were  worked  with  the 
spike-tooth  and  acme  harrows  from  April  18  to  May  7,  to 
prepare  a good  seed  bed.  Plots  2 and  4 were  seeded  to  oats 
at  the  rate  of  one  bushel  per  acre,  as  a nurse  crop  for  the 
alfalfa.  The  alfalfa  was  sowed  on  May  11  with  an  alfalfa 
drill  at  the  rate  of  10  pounds  per  acre ; Plots  1 and  3 being 
seeded  to  alfalfa  without  a nurse  crop. 

RECORD  OF  TREATMENT,  NEW  SEEDING. 

May  20.  Alfalfa  coming  up  on  all  the  plots. 

July  2-6.  Plots  given  first  irrigation. 

July  10.  Alfalfa  growing  rapidly. 

July  16.  Mowed  weeds  on  Plots  1 and  3. 

July  20.  Alfalfa  sowed  without  nurse  crops  appears  to  be  a 
thicker  stand,  but  that  sowed  with  nurse  crop  grew  taller,  probably  on 
account  of  the  shading  by  the  nurse  crop. 

July  25-27.  Plots  given  second  irrigation. 

July  30.  Mowed  nurse  crop  on  Plots  2 and  4. 

Aug.  18.  Mowed  all  pots  and  allowed  material  to  remain  on  the 
ground  as  a mulch. 

At  the  close  of  the  season  there  was  apparently  no  differ- 
ence in  the  stand  of  the  alfalfa  sowed  with  the  nurse  crop  and 
that  sowed  without.  It  would  appear  that  the  preparation  of 
the  seed  bed,  the  moisture  supply,  and  the  seed  are  more  im- 
portant factors  in  the  growth  of  the  crop  than  the  nurse  crop. 
The  nurse  crop,  however,  gives  a considerable  crop  of  hay 
which  otherwise  could  not  be  obtained  from  the  alfalfa  ground 
the  first  season. 

Alfalfa  Work , 1915. 
plots  30  AND  31. 

Plots  received  a top  dressing  of  three  tons  of  barnyard  manure 
during  the  winter  of  1914-1915. 

May  18.  Plots  renovated  with  the  alfalfa  cultivator.  This  im- 
plement had  not  been  used  before.  Apparently  good  results  may  be  ob- 
tained from  its  use. 


34  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


May  25.  Plots  given  first  irrigation. 

July  19.  First  cutting.  Hay  cured  in  shock. 

(For  yields,  see  Table  I.) 

Aug.  3.  Plots  given  second  irrigation. 

Sept.  7.  Second  cutting.  (For  yields,  see  Table  I.) 

The  season  was  cold  and  backward.  The  growth  of  the 
varieties  was  checked  all  through  the  season.  The  first  cut- 
ting was  very  poor  and  the  second  cutting  below  the  average. 

New  Seeding. 

Plots  on  Field  B seeded  in  1914  came  through  the  winter 
with  no  winterkilling.  A good  stand  remained  on  all  the  plots, 
but  yields  were  below  the  average  on  account  of  poor  season. 
Yield  of  four  acres,  two  cuttings,  2.22  tons  per  acre. 

A larger  area  in  Field  C was  sown  to  alfalfa  with  oats 
as  the  nurse  crop  in  1915.  This  land  is  rather  low  and  a por- 
tion of  it  receives  seepage  water.  A total  of  about  12  acres 
was  sowed.  The  area  was  divided  into  three  sections,  one 
section  being  sowed  to  oats  and  alfalfa  drilled  in  at  the  same 
time.  One  section  was  sowed  to  oats  and  the  alfalfa  broad- 
casted and  harrowed  in,  and  one  section  was  seeded  to  oats 
and  alfalfa,  with  the  broadcast  alfalfa  seeder.  The  ground 
was  so  wet  that  it  was  impossible  to  cut  the  oats.  There  was 
apparently  a good  stand  of  alfalfa  in  the  fall,  but  that  on  the 
low  part  of  the  field  was  killed.  There  was  no  apparent  differ- 
ence in  the  stands  obtained  by  the  different  methods  of  seed- 
ing. In  each  case  10  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  was  sowed  to  the 
acre,  with  one  bushel  of  oats  per  acre  as  a nurse  crop. 

The  broadcast  seeding  of  alfalfa  alone  in  1914,  on  Plot 
32,  gave  a yield  of  2.75  tons  per  acre  in  1915.  Results  this 
year  would  seem  to  indicate  that  alfalfa  can  be  grown  just  as 
well  with  a nurse  crop  if  there  is  sufficient  moisture,  and  that 
broadcasting  is  as  good  as  drilling. 

Native  Seed. 

In  the  spring  of  1912  two  small  areas  consisting  of  one- 
half  acre  each  were  seeded  with  Wyoming-grown  alfalfa  seed 
to  compare  the  effect  of  previous  crops.  One  plot  had  been 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


35 


in  grain  the  previous  year  and  the  bther  in  field  peas.  The 
plots  were  given  the  same  treatment  and  were  seeded  at  the 
same  time  with  the  same  variety  of  seed.  An  excellent  stand 
was  obtained  in  the  plot  that  had  'been  in  peas,  but  only  a poor 
stand  was  obtained  in  the  plot  that  had  been  in  grain. 

While  peas  will  not  inoculate  for  alfalfa,  they  seem  to 
put  the  soil  in  better  physical  condition.  In  plowing  and  har- 
rowing, the  pea  ground  was  more  friable  than  the  grain  ground, 
so  that  a better  seed  bed  was  formed.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  field  peas  will  help  to  put  land  that  is  in  poor  condition  in 
better  condition  for  alfalfa.  The  poor  stand  on  the  grain 
ground  was  plowed  up  the  following  year,  but  that  on  the  pea 
ground  was  allowed  to  stand.  One  noticeable  fact  in  regard 
to  the  native  seed  is  that  it  has  not  winterkilled  to  any  extent. 
This  is  peculiar  since  its  first  winter  was  unusually  severe. 
(For  yields,  see  Table  I.) 


in  the  Experimental  Plots  at  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


36 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


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Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


37 


Summary  of  Experiments  at  the  Wyoming  Station. 

1.  The  Grimm  leads  all  other  varieties  in  hardiness,  in 
earliness  of  maturity,  and  yield  per  acre.  (See  Tables  II 
and  III.) 

2.  Broadcasting  gave  as  good  results  as  drilling. 

3.  Equally  good  stands  were  obtained  with  and  without 
the  nurse  crop. 

4.  Summer  fallowing  put  the  ground  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  alfalfa. 

5.  When  a nurse  crop  is  used  a crop  of  hay  averaging 
one  ton  per  acre  was  obtained  the  first  year. 

6.  The  experiments  showed  no  advantage  from  inocula- 
tion. 

7.  Liming  the  soil  of  the  agronomy  farm  is  not  necessary. 

8.  Ten  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  gave  a sufficiently 
heavy  stand  in  all  cases. 

9.  One  irrigation  for  each  cutting  was  usually  sufficient. 

10.  A well-packed  seed  bed  with  a loose  surface,  good 

seed,  and  sufficient  moisture  in  the  ground  to  germinate  the 
seed  and  start  growth  seem  to  be  the  essential  factors  for  suc- 
cessful alfalfa  growing  under  conditions  similar  to  those  at  the 
agronomy  farm. 

III.  Cultural  Directions  tor  Growing  Altalta. 

Inoculation. 

Inoculation  of  either  the  seed  or  the  soil  for  the  growing 
of  alfalfa  has  not  been  found  necessary  in  Wyoming.  There 
is  little  trouble  in  getting  a good  stand  and  a successful  growth 
where  good  seed  is  planted  at  the  proper  time  in  a well-pre- 
pared seed  bed.  Some  experiments  in  inoculation  have  been 
carried  out  at  the  Station,  but  in  no  case  have  there  been  any 
better  results  than  where  there  was  no  inoculation.  (See  Fig. 
5.)  The  field  experiments  gave  no  better  results  than  the  pot 
experiments. 

Liming  is  also  unnecessary  in  most  Wyoming  soils.  Lim- 
ing is  often  necessary  in  the  soils  of  eastern  or  humid  regions 


38 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


on  account  of  their  tendency  to  become  acid.  Wyoming  soils 
are  not  acid,  but  tend  more  toward  alkalinity  and  are  generally 
well  supplied  with  lime  ; therefore,  alfalfa  does  well.  Experi- 
ments at  this  Station  show  that  the  addition  of  lime  to  the 
soil  is  of  no  benefit. 


Fig.  5 — Inoculation  of  Alfalfa. 

1.  Clear  Alfalfa. 

2.  Inoculated  Seed. 

3.  Soil  Limed. 

4.  Soil  Limed  and  Seed  Inoculated. 

Heavy  manuring  and  a crop  of  white  sweet  clover  will  put 
the  soil  in  good  shape  for  growing  alfalfa.  The  barnyard  ma- 
nure promotes  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  the  soil  and  the  bac- 
teria on  the  roots  of  the  sweet  clover  are  closely  related  to 
those  found  on  the  roots  of  the  alfalfa.  There  is  seldom  any 
trouble  in  getting  a stand  of  alfalfa  in  soils  well  supplied  with 
humus. 

Selecting  the  Land. 

Because  of  the  wide  distribution  of  alfalfa,  its  hardiness 
and  deep-feeding  roots,  it  is  often  taken  for  granted  that  the 
plant  will  do  well  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil.  This  is  a mis- 
take. The  selection  of  the  field  is  of  prime  importance. 

Alfalfa  grows  well  on  loamy  soils.  This  condition  can  be 
obtained  in  almost  any  soil  by  the  abundant  use  of  manure. 
The  character  of  the  subsoil  is  also  very  important;  there  must 
be  good  drainage.  This,  is  why  fields  with  considerable  slope 
are  better  for  alfalfa  than  low,  level  fields,  where  the  water  is 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


39 


likely  to  stand.  The  water  table  should  be  not  closer  than  6 
to  8 feet  below  the  surface.  Where  the  water  table  is  closer 
than  four  feet  it  is  doubtful  if  alfalfa  will  do  well.  If  the  sub- 
soil is  hard,  impervious,  or  water-logged  the  feeding  roots  of 
the  alfalfa  cannot  \york  to  the  best  advantage.  The  subsoil 
must  be  loose  enough  so  that  the  roots  can  penetrate  it  readily 
and  get  down  to  the  moisture  below.  Even  in  a well-drained 
soil  there  may  be  saturation  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  ground  be- 
comes covered  with  ice.  Such  a condition  is  almost  sure  death 
to  alfalfa.  When  the  plants  are  dormant  they  will  stand  flood- 
ing, but  they  will  not  stand  being  covered  with  ice.  Alfalfa 
always  does  well  on  a hillside  when  once  established,  because 
water  does  not  stand  on  the  surface.  The  moisture  conditions 
probably  have  more  to  do  with  the  successful  growing  of  al- 
falfa than  any  other  factors.  At  the  agronomy  farm  there  has 
been  no  trouble  in  getting  a stand  of  alfalfa,  but  it  has  been 
frequently  observed  that  the  plants  have  all  been  killed  in  the 
low  spots  in  the  fields  where  the  water  stood  for  a period  of 
time.  This  was  especially  noticeable  in  the  1915  planting. 

Alfalfa  should  not  be  seeded  on  new  breaking  nor  on  soils 
that  have  not  been  brought  to  good  tilth  by  cultivation.  Many 
letters  of  inquiry  are  received  asking  if  alfalfa  can  be  safely 
sown  on  new  breaking  or  on  sod  that  has  merely  been  disked. 
The  answer  is  invariably,  “Do  not  risk  it”.  At  no  time  have 
such  practices  been  successful  at  the  Experiment  Station.  A 
few  farmers  have  reported  success  from  sowing  alfalfa  on 
breaking,  but  in  practically  all  cases  the  breaking  had  been  done 
the  preceding  summer  or  fall  and  the  land  thoroughly  worked 
down  in  the  spring  before  sowing,  and  there  also  chanced  to 
be  a good  supply  of  moisture  that  season. 

Alfalfa  will  not  stand  much  alkali.  Where  the  alkali  spots 
are  not  too  bad  in  an  alfalfa  field  they  can  be  neutralized  by 
the  use  of  barnyard  manure.  If  this  is  not  an  effective  remedy 
they  can  be  sown  to  sweet  clover.  The  clover  is  strongly  re- 
sistant to  alkali  and  makes  good  forage.  The  spots  will  look 


40  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 

better  covered  with  a rich  growth  of  sweet  clover  than  when 
bare  of  vegetation. 

Land  as  free  of  weeds  as  possible  should  be  selected  for 
alfalfa.  For  this  reason  land  that  has  been  summer-fallowed 
the  previous  season  or  that  has  been  in  a cultivated  crop  is 
best.  Success  will  be  practically  certain  wherever  alfalfa  is 
sowed  on  deeply  plowed,  fertile  soil  that  has  been  summer- 
tilled  for  a season,  or  that  has  grown  a cultivated  crop.  The 
soil  should  also  have  a good  supply  of  moisture  stored  up  in  it 
at  the  time  the  seed  is  sowed. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. 

Alfalfa  when  growing  properly  has  a marvelous  root  de- 
velopment. To  allow  the  proper  development  of  this  root 
system  the  land  must  be  plowed  to  a good  depth.  The  soil, 
however,  must  be  well  packed  below  the  surface.  Therefore, 
fall  plowing  is  preferable  to  spring  plowing,  because  the  soil 
has  time  to  become  packed  during  the  winter.  The  disking 
and  harrowing  in  the  spring  puts  the  seed  bed  in  excellent  con- 
dition for  the  alfalfa  seed. 

Disking  and  harrowing  of  fall  plowing  should  begin  as 
soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  and  should  be 
kept  up  at  frequent  intervals  until  seeding  time.  The  weed 
seed  that  is  in  the  ground  will  germinate  and  the  cultivation 
will  kill  it.  Summer  fallow  of  the  previous  year  is  the  ideal 
seed  bed  for  alfalfa.  Such  ground  will  be  well  packed  and 
free  from  foreign  seeds. 

If  land  is  plowed  in  the  spring  for  alfalfa,  much  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  packing  of  the  same.  The  packer  should 
be  used,  or  if  this  implement  is  not  available  the  disk  harrow 
may  be  used,  keeping  the  disks  straight  when  running  through 
the  soil.  If  the  field  is  rolled  with  a smooth  roller  to  pack  it, 
or  if  it  is  planked  or  floated,  the  spike-tooth  harrow  should  be 
run  over  it  at  once  to  make  a surface  mulch  and  stop  evapora- 
tion. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


41 


Where  land  is  rather  light  and  loose,  merely  disking  the 
stubble  is  often  sufficient  to  prepare  it  for  the  seeding  of  alfalfa. 
Such  land,  however,  is  likely  to  contain  weed  seeds ; therefore, 
seeding  alfalfa  under  these  conditions  is  not  advisable.  Land 
that  has  been  in  some  cultivated  crop,  like  corn  or  potatoes  the 
preceding  year,  need  not  be  plowed.  Disking  and  harrowing 
will  put  this  ground  into  good  condition  for  seeding  to  alfalfa, 
provided  it  is  not  weedy. 

There  should  be  a sufficient  supply  of  moisture  stored  in 
the  soil  at  planting  time  to  germinate  the  seed  and  give  the 
plants  a good  start.  The  seed  should  not  be  irrigated  up  if  it 
can  possibly  be  avoided.  If  very  dry,  it  is  better  to  irrigate  the 
ground  before  seeding.  Good  drainage  is  also  necessary. 

Our  uncultivated  soils  are  generally  lacking  in  humus. 
Humus  is  essential  for  the  growth  of  bacteria  and  the  bacteria 
are  necessary  for  the  successful  growth  of  alfalfa.  New  lands 
are  the  only  place  where  inoculation  has  been  found  at  all  ben- 
eficial in  Wyoming  soils.  Where  barnyard  manure  is  used  or 
crop  residues  plowed  under  to  increase  the  humus  supply  there 
has  been  no  trouble  in  getting  a successful  stand  of  alfalfa 
without  inoculation. 

Time  to  Seed. 

The  establishment  of  a stand  is  the  important  thing.  If  a 
good  stand  is  obtained  and  there  is  the  proper  development  the 
first  year  there  need  be  no  further  fear  except  for  winterkilling, 
and  the  future  success  of  the  field  is  certain. 

The  time  of  seeding  is  not  so  important  if  soil  and  moisture 
conditions  are  favorable,  and  there  is  time  enough  for  the  plants 
to  establish  themselves  before  the  close  of  the  growing  season. 
Sowings  made  in  the  spring,  early  summer,  late  summer,  and 
even  in  the  fall  have  been  successful  under  Wyoming  condi- 
tions, but  taking  all  factors  into  consideration,  spring  sowing 
has  proved  the  best.  At  the  Experiment  Station  the  most  suc- 
cessful seeding  has  been  done  in  May.  The  most  important 
consideration,  however,  is  the  previous  preparation  of  the  soil. 
Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  this  point.  Given  clean, 


42  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 

fertile  land,  deeply  plowed,  and  well  tilled,  so  that  the  seed  bed 
conditions  are  ideal,  there  need  be  no  fear  but  that  a successful 
stand  of  alfalfa  will  be  obtained. 

The  Amount  of  Seed  to  Sow. 

No  set  rule  as  to  amount  of  seed  to  sow  per  acre  can  be 
given.  From  io  to  20  pounds  are  used  in  various  parts  of  the 
state.  The  error  is  generally  on  the  side  of  too  heavy  rather 
than  too  light  seeding.  The  practice  at  the  Station  has  been  to 
sow  10  pounds  per  acre.  This  has  given  good  stands  in  every 
instance  and  is  considered  sufficient  for  irrigated  conditions. 
Good,  tested  seed  should  be  used,  however,  so  that  one  may 
know  just  the  amount  he  is  sowing.  Ten  pounds  of  50  per 
cent  seed  will  not  be  sufficient.  On  non-irrigated  lands  4 to  5 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will  be  sufficient  for  drilling,  or  1 to  3 
pounds  if  planted  in  rows  to  cultivate. 

The  Nurse  Crop. 

In  the  non-irrigated  sections  the  growing  of  alfalfa  with 
nurse  crop  is  not  advised.  There  is  usually  no  more  moisture 
than  is  needed  by  the  alfalfa.  Under  irrigation  a nurse  crop 
of  oats  or  barley  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  if  moisture 
and  soil  conditions  are  favorable.  Fifty  pounds  of  oats  or 
barley  is  sufficient.  If  the  nurse  crop  gets  too  thick  and  ap- 
pears to  shade  the  alfalfa  too  much,  it  can  be  cut  for  hay.  If 
conditions  are  all  favorable,  the  nurse  crop  can  be  allowed  .to 
mature  grain.  In  either  case  some  crop  is  obtained  the  first 
year,  while  if  the  alfalfa  is  seeded  alone  no  crop  is  obtained 
until  the  second  year.  The  nurse  crop  also  helps  to  keep  down 
the  weeds  if  the  soil  is  foul.  This  is  especially  true  when 
sowed  rather  early  in  the  spring.  Alfalfa  can  safely  be  seeded 
earlier  than  is  the  general  practice  over  the  state.  The  young 
alfalfa  plants  grow  well  in  cool  weather  and  will  stand  con- 
siderable cold  when  well  started.  The  better  developed  the 
alfalfa  becomes  before  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  summer,  the 
more  chance  it  has  of  withstanding  the  winter  successfully. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


43 


Methods  of  Seeding. 

Alfalfa  may  be  planted  with  the  drill  or  it  may  be  broad- 
casted. Both  methods  have  been  equally  successful  at  the  Ex- 
periment Station.  The  ordinary  grain  drill  with  the  grass  seed 
attachment  is  all  right  if  care  is  taken  that  the  seed  is  not 
planted  too  deep.  The  drill  disks  often  go  in  the  ground 
deeper  than  they  appear  to  and  the  alfalfa  seed  following 
them  down  is  liable  to  be  covered  too  deeply.  Alfalfa  should- 
have  a covering  of  not  more  than  half  an  inch  in  fairly  heavy 
soil,  and  not  more  than  one  inch  in  light  soils. 

There  is  less  danger  of  getting  the  seed  too  deep  when  it 
is  broadcasted.  The  broadcasting  may  be  done  with  the  hand 
seeder  or  a combined  alfalfa  cultivator  and  seeder.  After 
being  seeded  in  this  way  the  field  should  be  harrowed.  This 
will  cover  the  seed  to  just  about  the  proper  depth. 

Irrigation. 

After  seeding,  if  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  as  regards 
tilth  and  moisture,  the  alfalfa  field  will  require  no  more  care 
until  it  is  time  to  irrigate.  At  this  time  the  alfalfa  plants 
should  be  at  least  three  or  four  inches  high.  It  is  better  to 
postpone  the  first  irrigation  as  long  as  possible  and  then  irri- 
gate heavily.  This  will  be  better  than  several  light  irrigations. 

The  later  irrigation  does  not  check  the  growth  of  the  crop 
as  the  earlier  irrigation  often  does  since  the  weather  is  warmer 
and  the  water  is  warmer.  The  irrigation  water  is  cold  early 
in  the  season  and  when  applied  to  the  crop  often  checks  the 
growth  for  several  days.  The  desirability  of  delaying  irriga- 
tion also  holds  after  the  crop  has  become  established.  At  the 
Station  it  has  been  found  that  the  first  irrigation  given  after 
the  crop  was  several  inches  high  caused  a much  more  rapid 
growth  than  when  the  water  was  applied  before  the  growth 
started  in  the  spring. 

At  the  Station  one  irrigation  for  each  crop  has  usually 
been  found  sufficient.  Only  once  in  six  years  has  it  been  found 
necessary  to  irrigate  more  frequently.  On  this  occasion  a 
second  irrigation  was  given  shortly  before  the  first  cutting. 


44 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


The  irrigation  for  the  second  crop  is  given  as  soon  as  the 
first  crop  is  off  the  ground.  On  lighter  soils  in  various  parts 
of  the  state  a greater  number  of  irrigations  will  be  found  nec- 
essary. No  definite  rule  as  to  the  number  of  irrigations  can 
be  given.  The  need  of  irrigation  must  be  determined  by  the 
condition  of  the  soil  and  the  crop.  A good  rule  is  to  wait 
until  the  crop  is  in  real  need,  then  irrigate  thoroughly.  The 
flooding  method  is  generally  used  in  the  irrigation  of  alfalfa. 
As  large  a head  of  water  as  can  be  handled  should  be  used 
and  should  be  run  over  the  field  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The 
water  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Water  allowed  to  stand  on  the  surface  will  cause 
the  alfalfa  plants  to  turn  yellow.  The  kind  of  soil,  however, 
determines  to  a large  extent  the  methods  of  irrigation.  In 
general,  lighter  and  more  frequent  irrigations  are  necessary 
on  sandy  soils,  while  heavier  and  less  frequent  irrigations  can 
be  applied  to  clay  soils.  In  other  words  slow  irrigations  for 
clay  and  rapid  irrigations  for  sand  are  economical. 

Fall  irrigation  of  alfalfa  is  also  beneficial  if  not  done  too 
late.  A fall  irrigation  will  usually  postpone  the  spring  irriga- 
tion. Too  late  irrigation  in  the  fall  by  allowing  the  ground 
to  freeze  up  while  still  soggy  often  causes  winterkilling. 

Cultivation  or  Renovation. 

The  alfalfa  crop  needs  cultivation.  The  first  spring  after 
seeding  the  plants  will  not  be  firmly  enough  established  to 
stand  a severe  cultivation.  A harrowing  with  the  spiketooth 
will  be  sufficient  at  this  time.  After  this,  however,  the  cultiva- 
tion should  be  thoroughly  done  each  year.  An  alfalfa  culti- 
vator of  some  kind  should  be  used.  If  the  disk  harrow  is  used, 
it  should  be  run  with  the  disks  straight.  The  alfalfa  plants 
should  not  be  severely  cut  up. 

The  use  of  the  old-fashioned  porcupine  type  of  renovator 
is  no  longer  advised.  In  fact,  the  implement  is  no  longer  man  - 
ufactured. It  was  found  to  be  injurious  to  the  alfalfa  plants, 
because  its  sharp  spike-shaped  teeth  often  strike  down  in  the 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


45 


center  of  an  alfalfa  crown  without  splitting  it,  but  leaving  a 
hole  to  fill  up  with  water,  thus  forming  an  excellent  place  for 
the  development  of  fungi  and  'bacteria.  The  result  is  that  the 
plant  soon  dies. 

The  newer  types  of  alfalfa  cultivators,  however,  are  very 
beneficial  to  the  crop.  The  spring-tooth  alfalfa  harrow  is  a 
good  implement,  as  is  also  the  alfalfa  cultivator  with  the  seed- 
ing attachment.  In  this  implement  the  teeth  have  play  enough 
to  jump  over  or  around  the  crowns  without  cutting  them,  clean- 
ing out  the  weeds  and  loosening  up  the  soil  very  thoroughly. 
By  means  of  the  seeding  attachment,  bare  places  in  the  field 
can  be  reseeded  at  the  time  the  cultivating  is  being  done.  The 
cultivaing  should  be  done  early  in  the  spring  before  growth 
starts  and  again  after  the  first  cutting. 

Cutting  and  Curing  the  Crop. 

Cut  when  the  crop  is  about  one-third  in  bloom,  is  a gen- 
erally accepted  rule  for  cutting  alfalfa.  This  does  not  always 
apply  to  the  best  advantage,  however,  as  the  time  of  bloom 
varies  in  different  years.  A better  rule  to  follow  is  to  cut 
when  the  new  shoots  start  at  the  base  of  the  stems.  Some 
years  these  will  be  developed  too  far  by  the  time  the  crop  is 
one-third  in  bloom,  and  cutting  at  this  time  injures  the  sec- 
ond crop  quite  severely. 

At  the  Station  the  plan  is  to  rake  up  the  hay  close  behind 
the  mower.  It  should  not  lie  in  the  swath  more  than  half  a 
day  after  being  cut.  With  a side  delivery  rake  the  hay  can  be 
put  into  the  windrow  very  green,  where  it  can  be  put  up  into 
shocks  and  allowed  to  cure.  In  this  way  all  of  the  leaves  are 
saved  and  the  hay  has  a brighter  color  when  cured.  Since 
about  65  per  cent  of  the  nutriment  of  the  plant  is  found  in 
the  leaves,  it  is  very  important  that  the  leaves  be  saved.  If 
the  hay  is  allowed  to  cure  in  the  swath  before  being  raked  up 
many  of  the  leaves  are  lost.  It  takes  from  four  to  six  days 
of  good  weather  for  the  hay  to  cure  in  the  shock.  A little 
salt  added  to  each  load  of  hay  when  it  is  put  in  the  stack 


46 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


or  the  barn  will  improve  the  quality  and  prevent  heating  to 
some  extent. 

Stack  Burning. 

Many  inquiries  have  come  to  the  Station  in  regard  to 
stack-burning  alfalfa  hay.  Many  of  the  stockmen  of  the  state 
want  their  hay  stack-burned  for  feeding  purposes,  holding 
that  it  has  a higher  feeding  value  and  that  the  stock  eat  it 
better.  The  following  article  by  Mr.  A.  L.  Campbell,  formerly 
County  Agent  of  Fremont  County,  Wyoming,  is  of  interest. 
He  says : 

Tests  comparing’  the  feeding  value  of  bright  alfalfa  hay 
and  “stack4>urned”  indicate  the  stack-burned  has  the  greater 
feeding  and  fattening  value  per  ton.  The  Kansas  Experi- 
ment Station  has  made  tests  of  hay  sent  from  the  Lander 
Valley  which  prove  that  stack-burned  alfalfa  has  a higher 
per  cent  of  digestible  nutrients  than  does  other  hay  taken 
from  the  same  field.  At  least  three  or  four  feeders  in  this 
county  (Fremont)  have  made  comparative  tests,  alternating 
from  one  kind  to  the  other  and  have  satisfied  themselves 
that  the  stack-burned  is  eaten  more  readily  and  fattens  more 
rapidly  than  does  the  bright,  clear  or  “pea  green”  hay  for 
either  cattle  or  sheep. 

In  order  to  have  stack-burned  hay,  it  is  necessary  to  put 
the  alfalfa  into  the  stack  as  soon  as  possible  after  cutting. 

A process  of  fermentation  then  takes  place  similar  to  that 
which  takes  place  in  a silo.  The  fermentation -breaks  down 
the  woody  or  crude  fiber  in  the  stems  of  the  plant  and  makes 
more  of  it  digestible.  All  of  the  leaves  are  also  saved  when 
alfalfa  is  put  up  by  this  method. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  feeding  value  of  the  alfalfa 
is  increased  by  this  method,  but  it  costs  more,  as  the  hay  is 
heavier  to  handle  and  is  usually  too  dusty  to  feed  to  horses. 

If  the  hay  is  to  be  fed  on  the  farm  the  stack-burning  will 
probably  pay,  but  if  the  hay  is  to  be  sold  the  hay  should  be 
allowed  to  cure  in  such  a way  that  it  will  have  the  bright 
“pea  green  color”. 

Growing  Alfalfa  Seed. 

In  many  sections  of  Wyoming  conditions  are  ideal  for 
the  production  of  alfalfa  seed.  Wyoming  seed  finds  a ready 
market  at  home  and  in  surrounding  states.  Good  seed  is  pro- 
duced under  dry-farm  conditions  and  under  irrigation.  One 
important  factor  in  successful  alfalfa  seed  production  is  that 
the  moisture  supply  be  limited  at  the  time  the  alfalfa  is  in 
bloom  and  the  seed  being  formed. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


47 


The  second  crop  is  usually  left  for  seed  under  irrigated 
conditions,  but  the  water  is  kept  away  from  this  crop  so  that 
the  seed  may  form.  At  the  higher  altitudes  of  the  state  it 
is  necessary  to  leave  the  first  crop  for  seed  on  account  of  the 
shortness  of  the  season;  and  unless  the  season  is  very  dry  no 
irrigation  will  be  needed. 

One  can  usually  foretell  a good  seed  crop  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  plants.  Vigorous  branching,  a growth  not  too 
rank,  and  a uniform  blossoming  period  indicate  good  seed 
production. 

The  seed  should  be  harvested  while  the  pods  are  still 
somewhat  green.  If  the  pods  are  allowed  to  attain  more  than 
a yellowish  color  there  will  be  much  shattering.  The  crop 
may  be  cut  with  the  mower  and  allowed  to  cur?  on  the 
ground.  A self-binder  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  and 
the  bundles  set  up  in  shocks.  This  facilitates  handling  at 
threshing  time.  The  threshing  may  be  done  with  the  ordinary 
grain  separator,  but  this  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  the  clover 
huller.  Yields  of  from  300  to  600  pounds  per  acre  should  be 
obtained  under  Wyoming  conditions. 

Winterkilling. 

Occasionally  reports  of  winterkilling  of  alfalfa  come  to 
the  Station  and  many  theories  of  the  causes  and  prevention 
of  the  same  are  advanced.  There  are  several  causes  of  win- 
terkilling. Among  these  are  insufficient  growth  the  first  year, 
pasturing  too  closely  late  in  the  fall,  watering  too  late  in  the 
fall,  becoming  too  dry,  and  lack  of  winter  protection.  New 
seeding  should  be  done  early  enough  so  that  the  plants  will 
get  a good  start  before  freezing  up.  If  the  alfalfa  has  been 
sowed  alone  and  the  field  is  weedy,  it  should  be  mowed  early 
in  the  fall  and  the  material  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground 
as  a mulch.  If  the  alfalfa  was  seeded  with  a nurse  crop  the 
stubble  will  afford  winter  protection. 

Alfalfa  should  not  be  pastured  too  closely  after  the  last 
cutting.  The  tramping  of  animals  when  the  ground  is  soft 


48 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


is  injurious.  Pasturing  after  the  ground  is  frozen,  however, 
will  do  no  harm. 

Late  irrigation  sometimes  causes  winterkilling  by  satu- 
rating the  soil  so  late  that  it  freezes  up  in  this  condition.  Fall 
irrigation  is  beneficial,  provided  it  is  done  early  enough  so  that 
the  water  has  time  to  go  down  before  the  ground  freezes.  It 
is  safer  to  give  the  last  irrigation  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
last  cutting  is  out  of  the  way.  This  will  generally  give  the 
plants  a sufficient  moisture  supply  to  carry  them  through  the 
winter  and  up  to  the  time  of  the  first  spring  irrigation.  A top- 
dressing of  barnyard  manure  will  give  the  alfalfa  plants  some 
winter  protection  and  will  also  add  fertility  to  the  soil.  This 
top-dressing  of  manure  is  especially  beneficial  to  the  alfalfa 
field  on  the  dry  farm. 

Combating  Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies. 

Wyoming  alfalfa  is  subject  to  but  few  diseases.  The  root- 
rot  has  appeared  in  old  fields  in  some  parts  of  the  state.  This 
disease  usually  does  not  make  its  appearance  until  the  plants 
are  five  or  six  years  old.  Crop  rotation  will  keep  the  alfalfa 
free  from  this  disease.  Breaking  up  the  alfalfa  land  and 
growing  a crop  or  two  of  grain  and  a cultivated  crop,  and  then 
seeding  back  to  alfalfa,  keeps  the  disease  completely  in  check. 

Stem  blight  is  a disease  which  occasionally  is  brought  on 
by  the  plants  being  affected  by  early  spring  frosts.  The  freez- 
ing affects  the  tender  stems,  causing  them  to  soften,  and  they 
are  attacked  by  bacteria,  causing  blight,  and  growth  stops. 
When  alfalfa  fields  become  seriously  affected  by  the  blight 
the  crop  should  be  cut  at  once,  so  that  the  second  crop  can 
come  on  without  hindrance. 

Insect  pests  are  not  numerous.  Grasshoppers  occasionally 
do  some  harm.  Cultivating  the  field  early  in  the  spring  is  ben- 
eficial, since  it  exposes  the  young  grasshoppers  to  the  spring 
frosts  and  the  attacks  of  birds.  The  use  of  the  “hopper 
dozer”,  an  implement  which  when  drawn  across  the  fields 
knocks  the  insects  into  a pan  of  oil,  is  sometimes  necessary 
when  the  pests  become  serious. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


49 


Wyoming  has  thus  far  been  practically  free  from  the  al- 
falfa leaf  weevil.  Some  reports  of  damage  done  by  the  wee- 
vil have  been  received,  but  upon  investigation  they  have  proved 
false  alarms.  On  several  occasions  when  such  reports  came 
to  the  Experiment  Station  specimens  of  the  insect  were  sent 
in  and  in  every  case  the  pest  was  identified  as  the  alfalfa 
looper.  The  looper  occasionally  does  some  damage  to  alfalfa 
and  other  plants.  It  is  not  common,  however,  and  appears 
only  occasionally.  It  was  quite  numerous  in  the  Big  Horn 
Basin  and  in  the  central  part  of  the  state  in  1914,  but  was  not 
reported  at  all  in  1915. 

During  the  summer  of  1914,  the  Agronomist  received  a 
letter  from  the  Montana  Station  stating  that  reports  of  the 
alfalfa  weevil  doing  destructive  work  had  come  from  the  Big 
Horn  Basin.  This  office  gave  them  the  information  on  hand, 
namely,  that  the  reports  had  been  investigated  and  the  pest 
found  to  be  the  alfalfa  looper.  To  verify  this  the  Montana 
Station  sent  a man  into  the  section  to  investigate.  He  found 
no  alfalfa  weevil,  but  the  alfalfa  looper  was  found  in  abund- 
ance, thus  corroborating  the  investigations  of  this  office. 

The  looper  is  a green  worm  something  like  but  somewhat 
larger  than  the  so-called  “measuring  worms”  or  “span  worms”, 
often  seen  on  garden  plants.  It  usually  does  not  do  much 
damage  to  alfalfa  and  generally  disappears  after  the  first  cut- 
ting. If  the  loopers  are  abundant  the  alfalfa  should  be  cut  as 
soon  as  possible  and  the  field  given  a thorough  irrigation. 
There  is  then  little  danger  of  their  injuring  the  second  cutting. 

Since  the  alfalfa  looper  appears  occasionally  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  do  considerable  damage  and  to  cause  some  uneasi- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  alfalfa  grower,  the  following  rules  for 
the  control  of  the  pest  given  by  the  Montana  Station  are  given 
here : 

The  loopers  become  noticeably  abundant  shortly  before 
time  to  cut  the  first  crop.  They  are  not  easily  seen  until  one 
looks  closely,  and  careful  examination  of  the  fields  which  the 
owner  has  seen  daily  may  reveal  a surprising-  number  of  the 
worms. 


50  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


As  the  season  advances  the  larvae  become  larger  by  the 
time  the  first  crop  is  cut.  They  will  not  eat  the  hay  and 
when  the  green  alfalfa  is  removed,  they  are  forced  to  search 
for  food.  They  go  to  adjoining  fields  in  great  numbers  and 
an  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  injury  to  the  other  crops, 
such  as  sugar  beets  and  corn.  To  accomplish  this  a trial  of 
the  following  methods  is  suggested : 

1.  Where  practicable,  run  a ditch  of  water  around  the 
alfalfa  field  or  between  it  and  the  other  field  to  be  protected, 
to  prevent  the  crawling  worms  from  crossing. 

2.  Spray  heavily  with  Paris  Green  or  Arsenate  of  Lead 
around  the  edges  of  the  field,  wherever  the  worms  may  be 
found  feeding.  In  some  instances  it  may  be  well  to  leave  a 
strip  of  alfalfa  around  the  edge  of  the  field,  and  in  large  fields 
some  in  the  middle,  as  bait,  which  should  be  poisoned.  This 
should  be  later  cut  down  and,  when  dry,  burned,  to  prevent 
poisoning  domestic  animals.  Paris  Green  may  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  three  to  four  pounds  to  the  hundred  gallons  of  water. 

The  addition  of  soap  at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  to  one  hun- 
dred gallons  of  water  aids  in  making  the  poison  spread  and 
stick. 

Alfalfa  in  the  Crop  Rotation. 

Experience  has  shown  that  alfalfa  fields  produce  better 
crops  when  plowed  up  every  four  or  five  years  and  reseeded. 
In  other  words,  a crop  rotation  system  increases  the  yields  of 
alfalfa  and  also  the  yields  of  other  crops.  A.  L.  Campbell, 
formerly  County  Agent  in  Fremont  County,  reports  yields  of 
alfalfa  and  grain  crops  more  than  doubled  in  that  county  by 
a crop  rotation  system  in  which  alfalfa  fields  were  plowed  up 
every  four  years  and  grain  crops  and  potatoes  grown  for  two 
or  three  years,  the  land  then  being  seeded  back  to  alfalfa. 

The  usual  plan  of  rotation  is  to  allow  the  alfalfa  to  stand 
four  years.  It  is  then  broken  up  and  planted  to  a cultivated 
crop  or  grain  crops  for  two  or  more  years  and  then  seeded 
back  to  alfalfa.  It  is  usually  better  to  grow  grain  the  first 
year  after  the  alfalfa  breaking.  If  a root  or  other  cultivated 
crop  is  grown  the  first  year  the  many  alfalfa  plants  that  have 
not  been  killed  will  hinder  the  cultivation,  but  where  grain  is 
grown  the  alfalfa  plants  will  not  hinder  its  growth  and  a sec- 
ond plowing  will  kill  out  the  remaining  plants. 

In  the  sugar-beet  sections  alfalfa  works  well  in  the  crop 
rotation.  Alfalfa  land  is  excellent  for  beets.  If  plowed  thor- 
oughly, the  beets  can  be  grown  the  first  year,  but  a grain  crop 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


51 


will  follow  the  alfalfa  better  the  first  year  after  breaking. 
Plant  beets  the  second  year  and  the  following  year  the  land 
may  be  seeded  back  to  alfalfa  with  grain  as  a nurse  crop.  In 
this  rotation  the  alfalfa  stands  four  years,  being  followed  by 
two  crops  of  grain  and  one  cultivated  crop.  This  permits  the 
barnyard  manure  to  be  used  on  the  alfalfa  where  it  will  be  of 
•the  greatest  value  to  that  and  the  other  crops. 

Breaking  Up  Alfalfa  Land. 

There  is  often  a good  deal  of  trouble  in  getting  rid  of 
alfalfa  unless  the  breaking  is  properly  done.  The  alfalfa  or 
breaker  bottom  should  be  used  on  the  plow  and  the  share  kepi 
very  sharp  so  that  it  will  cut  through  the  crowns  and  not  slide 
around  them.  The  best  time  to  break  is  in  the  fall  after  the 
last  cutting.  The  breaking  should  be  only  deep  enough  to  cut 
the  crowns.  A second  plowing  should  be  made  in  the  spring; 
this  should  be  deeper.  The  crown  having  been  cut  off,  this 
plowing  will  be  easier  and  will  kill  out  practically  all  of  the 
plants,  so  that  a cultivated  crop  may  be  grown  the  first  year, 
if  so  desired.  Grain  may  be  grown  with  one  plowing  if  the 
saving  of  time  is  important.  The  second  plowing,  however, 
will  be  found  to  pay. 

Pasturing  Alfalfa. 

While  alfalfa  is  primarily  a hay  plant,  it  also  affords  ex- 
cellent pasture  for  all  farm  animals.  It  is  especially  good  for 
young,  growing  animals.  When  pastured  by  cattle  and  sheep, 
however,  caution  in  regard  to  bloat  must  be  observed. 

Alfalfa  should  not  be  pastured  too  closely  by  any  kind 
of  stock,  unless  it  is  desired  to  destroy  the  stand.  If  the  field 
is  to  be  broken  up  in  the  crop  rotation  the  animals  may  be 
allowed  to  eat  the  plants  down  to  the  ground.  Animals  should 
not  be  permitted  to  run  on  alfalfa  when  the  ground  is  wet. 
The  tramping  of  large  animals  injures  the  crowns  of  the 
plants.  The  heavy  pasturing  of  alfalfa  is  hazardous  under 
any  conditions.  Therefore,  other  pasture  should  be  provided, 
so  that  intensive  pasturing  of  the  alfalfa  fields  will  not  be 


52  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 

necessary.  Alfalfa  seed  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  in 
pasture  mixtures. 

Alfalfa  and  Timothy. 

In  some  parts  of  the  state  it  is  a common  practice  to  sow 
timothy  with  the  alfalfa ; the  alfalfa-and-timothy  hay  being 
quite  popular  with  many  stockmen. 

A mixture  of  five  pounds  of  timothy  and  five  pounds  of 
alfalfa  per  acre  was  sowed  at  the  Experiment  Station  some 
years  ago.  The  timothy  did  not  seem  to  do  well  under  local 
conditions  and  was  soon  replaced  by  the  alfalfa.  In  many 
parts  of  the  state,  however,  conditions  seem  to  be  favorable 
for  the  growing  of  these  two  plants  together.  The  alfalfa 
comes  into  bloom  a little  ahead  of  the  timothy,  so  the  alfalfa 
will  be  more  mature  when  cut  than  when  grown  alone.  This 
is  not  detrimental  to  the  feeding  value  of  the  hay,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  makes  it  more  valuable  for  feeding  horses.  The 
second  crop  comes  on  without  the  timothy  and  consists  of 
clear  alfalfa. 

On  lands  that  are  suitably  drained  and  where  the  water 
table  is  not  too  near  the  surface,  the  alfalfa  and  timothy  mix- 
ture will  probably  be  found  valuable  for  permanent  meadows. 

Alfalfa  on  the  Dry  Farm. 

But  little  experimental  work  along-  the  line  of  growing 
alfalfa  without  irrigation  has  been  done  at  the  Experiment 
Station  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  dry-farm  work  of  the  state 
is  being  conducted  by  the  State  Farm  Board  and  it  has  been 
deemed  wise  to  avoid  duplication  of  work  as  far  as  possible. 

Numerous  inquiries  regarding  the  growing  of  alfalfa  on 
the  non-irrigated  farm  have  been  received  at  the  Station,  so 
it  seems  well  to  include  a brief  discussion  of  the  subject  in 
this  bulletin. 

Improvements  in  methods  of  dry-land  farming  and  im- 
provement in  varieties  by  selection  and  otherwise,  have  made 
it  possible  to  grow  alfalfa  in  sections  heretofore  considered 
too  dry  for  its  utilization. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming. 


53 


Much  alfalfa  is  still  broadcasted  on  the  dry  land,  but  the 
cultivated-row  method  is  becoming  more  and  more  popular. 
The  crop,  whether  grown  for  hay  or  seed,  is  improved  by  the 
row  method.  By  this  method  there  is  more  certainty  of  re- 
taining it  if  moisture  is  scarce. 

For  growing  alfalfa  on  the  dry  farm  the  hardy  varieties 
of  seed,  such  as  the  Grimm,  Baltic  or  “Dry  Grown”,  should 
be  selected. 

The  land  should  be  as  carefully  prepared  for  seeding  as 
under  irrigation,  whether  the  seed  is  to  be  sowed  broadcast 
or  in  rows.  A deep-plowed,  well-packed  seed  bed  is  neces- 
sary in  either  case.  A thin  uniform  stand  in  rows  36  to  42 
inches  apart  will  give  better  results  than  seeding  closer  to- 
gether. Only  about  two  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will  be  re- 
quired by  this  method  of  seeding. 

The  seeding  can  be  done  with  an  ordinary  garden  drill 
or  with  a grain  or  grass  drill  stopping  up  enough  of  the  spouts 
so  that  the  rows  will  be  the  required  distance  apart.  A corn 
or  beet  cultivator  can  be  used  for  cultivating  as  soon  as  the 
plants  are  large  enough  for  the  rows  to  be  seen. 

For  the  production  of  seed  the  row  method  is  not  only 
more  certain  of  producing  a crop,  but  will  produce  a larger 
yield,  since  it  affords  a better  moisture  condition  and  more 
light  to  the  individual  plant. 

If  it  is  desired  to  sow  the  seed  broadcast  or  to  drill  in 
close  rows,  care  should  be  taken  to  scatter  the  seed  thin.  Four 
or  five  pounds  to  the  acre  will  be  sufficient.  Thin  seeding  is 
more  certain  to  give  a good  stand  than  thick  seeding.  Rather 
early  sowing  is  also  advised.  Probably  from  the  first  to  the 
middle  of  May  will  suit  most  dry-farm  conditions  in  Wyo- 
ming. 


54 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  Ill 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

Much  credit  for  this  bulletin  is  due  Mr.  Ross  L.  Bancroft, 
who  was  Student  Foreman  at  the  Agronomy  Farm  for  three 
years.  He  had  direct  charge  of  the  farm  during  this  time. 

Mr.  P.  F.  Meyers,  Assistant  in  Agronomy,  also  gave  val- 
uable assistance  in  the  compilation  of  tables  and  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  diagrams  and  pictures. 

Material  for  Further  Reading. 

Those  who  desire  more  information  in  general  in  regard 
to  alfalfa  are  referred  to  the  following  books  and  bulletins  on 
the  subject: 

Books : 

Alfalfa  in  America , by  Joseph  Wing. 

Forage  Plants,  by  Chas.  V.  Piper. 

Bulletins  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. : 

Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  339,  Alfalfa. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  373,  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa. 

Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  495,  Alfalfa  Seed  Production. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bulletin  No.  209,  Grimm 
Alfalfa  in  the  Northwest. 

Booklets  of  the  International  Harvester  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 


Dec.  1916 


Alfalfa  in  Wyoming 


55 


BULLETIN  NO.  112 


JANUARY,  1917 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


The  Poisonous  Properties  of  the 
Two-Grooved  Milk  Vetch 

( Astragalus  bisulcatus ) 

By  O.  A.  Beath  and  E.  H.  Lehnert 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request 
Address : Director  Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming 


SUMMARY. 


I.  Milk  vetch  has  been  proved  to  be  poisonous  to  cattle. 
Suspicion  is  held  regarding  its  effect  upon  sheep. 

II.  Eighty  to  ninety  per  cent  of  the  animals  affected  die. 

III.  Water  easily  removes  the  active  poison  from  green  or 

air-dried  material. 

IV.  All  parts  of  the  plant  contain  poison  with  a slight  ex- 

cess in  the  leaves. 

V.  The  poison  is  neither  precipitated  by  basic  acetate  of 
lead  nor  decomposed  at  the  boiling  point  of  water. 

VI.  It  can  be  deprived  of  its  toxicity  by  boiling  with  dilute 
acids  (indicating  its  probable  glucosidic  character). 

VII.  The  poison  is  non-alkaloidal. 

VIII.  A definite  crystalline  substance  has  been  isolated,  giv- 
ing chemical  reactions  common  to  glucosides. 

IX.  Thus  far  no  chemical  antidote  has  been  obtained. 

X.  As  indicated  by  the  physiological  action  of  the  poison, 
drugs  that  stimulate  the  heart  and  nervous  system 
should  prove  beneficial  in  the  case  of  vetch-poison- 
ing. 


The  Poisonous  Properties  of  the 
Two-Grooved  Milk  Vetch 

( Astragalus  bisulcatus) 

PART  I.  CHEMICAL. 

BY  O.  A.  BE)ATH. 

Introduction. 

A brief  account  of  the  two-grooved  milk  vetch  ( Astra- 
galus bisulcatus)  is  put  in  the  form  of  a preliminary  bulletin 
at  this  time,  largely  to  warn  stockmen  of  its  poisonous  nature. 
Authorities  on  poisonous  plants  make  no  mention  of  this  par- 
ticular vetch  as  being  suspected  of  producing  toxic  effects.  As 
a consequence  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  certain  conditions  un- 
doubtedly prevail  which  cause  it  to  be  extremely  variable  in  its 
toxicity.  Moisture  unquestionably  influences  the  activity  of 
the  toxic  principle,  inasmuch  as  it  is  readily  soluble  in  water. 
Certain  stockmen  have  used  this  vetch  for  forage  purposes 
without  any  apparent  ill  effects,  thereby  illustrating  the  small 
degree  of  danger  when  the  plant  is  well  dried. 

The  attention  of  the  research  laboratory  was  called  to  the 
plant’s  probable  poisonous  character  rather  late  in  the  season 
and  as  a result  the  data  available  at  this  time  have  to  do  only 
with  well  matured  material.  Therefore,  the  seasonal  factor  is 
yet  to  be  determined. 

It  is  a matter  of  regret  that  direct  feeding  experiments 
could  not  have  been  employed  to  verify  the  results  obtained  by 
using  water  and  alcoholic  extracts.  However,  the  project  is  to 
be  continued  on  a larger  scale  this  coming  summer. 

General  Character  op  thp  Plant. 

Milk  vetch  is  found  growing  on  plains  and  in  valleys 
throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  It  appears  during 
the  month  of  May  and  goes  to  seed  the  latter  part  of  July. 
The  following  description  of  the  plant  is  given  in  Bulletin  No. 
76  of  the  Wyoming  Experiment  Station  : 


60  * Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  112 


This  is  one  of  the  large,  coarse  vetches,  usually  growing 
in  dense  clumps  and  becoming  2 to  3 feet  high.  It  produces 
purple  blossoms  in  profusion  and  these  are  followed  by  an 
abundance  of  pods  from  one-half  to  nearly  an  inch  long  and 
having  two  rather  deep  furrows  on  the  upper  side.  The  plant 
is  rather  rank  scented,  especially  when  young,  and,  unless 
other  forage  is  scarce,  is  not  browsed  down  until  the  pods 
begin  to  mature. 


The  TwoJGrooved  Milk  Vetch. 


Jan.  1917 


Poisonous  Properties  of  Milk  Vetch. 


61 


' All  parts  of  the  plant  contain  poison  apparently  quite 
evenly  distributed  throughout. 

Data  gathered  from  stockmen  would  indicate  that  this  spe- 
cies of  vetch  is  poisonous  to  cattle  and  sheep.  Nothing  is 
known  in  regard  to  its  effect  on  horses.  The  laboratory  has 
obtained  no  direct  evidence  that  sheep  have  been  killed  by  eat- 
ing it,  although  a number  of  suspicious  cases  are  on  record. 

During  July,  1916,  E.  B.  Foster  of  Casper  reported  a loss 
of  nine  calves  and  ten  cows,  out  of  a herd  of  forty-one  head. 
He  states,  “No  two  acted  in  the  same  way.  However,  all  evi- 
denced signs  of  craziness.  On  some  the  effect  would  hardly 
be  noticed  until  one  went  near  them,  and  then  they  would  sud- 
denly act  frightened  and  in  attempting  to  get  away  would 
stumble  and  fall  or  have  a fit.”  All  animals  which  showed 
signs  of  milk-vetch  poisoning  died. 

Experimental. 

The  plant  material  submitted  for  investigation  was  secured 
from  Mr.  Foster  of  Casper,  Wyo.  Green  plants  could  have 
been  obtained  in  the  vicinity  of  Laramie,  but  it  seemed  advisable 
to  deal  with  those  authentically  known  to  have  given  trouble. 

After  drying,  the  seeds,  pods,  leaves,  and  stems,  respect- 
ively, were  coarsely  ground  and  placed  in  air-tight  containers. 

Test  for  Hydrocyanic  Acid. 

Five  hundred  grams  of  air-dried  material  were  placed  in  a 
flask  and  saturated  with  water.  Steam  was  then  passed  into 
the  flask  for  a period  of  three  hours.  The  (distillate  gave  neg- 
ative results  for  hydrocyanic  acid.  Tests  were  made  upon 
each  part  of  the  plant.  The  residue  remaining  in  each  case  was 
acidified  with  strong  sulphuric  acid  and  again  treated  as  above. 
Negative  results  were  obtained  for  combined  hydrocyanic  acid. 

The  distillates  had  an  odor  particularly  disagreeable.  The 
distillate  from  the  seeds  yielded  a small  amount  of  volatile  oil 
which  proved  to  be  non-toxic  in  character. 


62  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  112 


Test  for  Active  Enzymes. 

One  hundred  grams  of  finely  ground  leaves  and  stems 
were  digested  with  three  liters  of  water  at  a temperature  of 
37-5°  C.  for  a period  of  48  hours.  The  aqueous  portion  was 
separated  and  mixed  with  an  excess  of  alcohol.  A profuse 
precipitate  was  formed  which  soon  settled  to  the  bottom  of 
the  flask.  The  alcohol  was  removed  and  the  solids  remaining 
were  washed  with  a little  cold  alcohol  and  subsequently  dried. 
A portion  added  to  a dilute  solution  of  amygdalin  failed  to 
produce  hydrolyses  to  any  appreciable  extent.  This  indicates 
the  absence  of  Beta-glucose  or  allied  enzymes  capable  of  hy- 
drolyzing Beta- methyl  glucosides.  Not  having  any  representa- 
tive of  the  Alpha-methyl  glucosides  the  presence  of  Alpha- 
glucose  could  not  be  ascertained. 

Water  Extracts. 

In  carrying  out  the  work  of  determining  the  character  of 
milk  vetch  it  was  quickly  demonstrated  that  water  was  a 
better  solvent  for  the  removal  of  the  poisonous  principle  than 
alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  or  acidulated  water. 

The  concentrated  water  extracts  were  invariably  dark, 
resembling  plant  resins  obtained  by  alcoholic  percolation.  Res- 
idues obtained  by  alcoholic  treatment  were  dark  and  in  general 
did  not  differ  in  appearance  from  those  derived  by  maceration 
with  water.  If  to  a concentrated  alcoholic  extract  a large 
volume  of  water  was  added,  a bulky  grayish  precipitate  was 
thrown  down.  This,  upon  closer  examination,  proved  to  be 
calcium  sulphate. 

With  the  exception  of  three  extracts,  all  were  given  in- 
ternally to  full-grown  rabbits.  The  three  administered  other- 
wise were  given  to  an  old  ewe,  a yearling  calf,  and  a female 
dog. 

The  extracts  used  in  the  tests  were  prepared  as  follows : 


No.  1. 

Seeds  and  pods  (dry) 3 oz. 

Alcohol  (95%) 10  oz. 


Jan.  1917 


Poisonous  Properties  of  Milk  Vetch. 


63 


Mixture  digested  24  hours  at  a temperature  of  37.5 0 C., 
concentrated  to  small  bulk  and  diluted  with  2 oz.  of  water. 


No.  2. 

Leaves  (dry) 3 oz. 

Alcohol  (95%) 10  oz. 

Treated  the  same  as  No.  1. 

No.  3. 

Seeds  and  pods  (dry) 3 oz. 

Water 15  oz. 


Digested  for  24  hours  at  37.5 0 C.  Aqueous  portion  sep- 


arated and  concentrated  to  2 oz. 

No.  4. 

Leaves  and  stems  (dry) 46  oz. 

Water 350  oz. 

Same  treatment  as  No.  3,  concentrated  to  75  oz. 

No.  5. 

Stems  (dry) 6 oz. 

Water 12  oz. 

Treated  as  in  No.  3,  concentrated  to  5 oz. 

No.  6. 

Leaves  and  stems  (dry) 87  oz. 

Water 150  oz. 

Same  treatment  as  in  No.  3,  concentrated  to  25  oz. 

No.  7. 

Whole  plant  (dry) 22  oz. 

Water 150  oz. 


Digested  48  hours  at  37.5 0 C.  Aqueous  portion  sep- 
arated and  concentrated  to  25  oz.  Treated  with  slight  ex- 
cess of  'basic  lead  acetate.  Lead  precipitate  removed, 
washed,  and  suspended  in  large  volume  of  water.  Lead 
precipitated  as  lead  sulphide.  Remaining  solution  con- 
centrated to  5 oz.  Labeled  Solution  “A”. 

That  portion  of  the  original  water  extract  not  precip- 
itated by  basic  lead  acetate  was  treated  with  hydrogen 
sulphide  to  remove  lead  and  concentrated  to  a volume  of 
5 oz.  Labeled  Solution  “B”. 


64  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  112 


No.  8. 

Leaves,  stems,  and  pods  (dry) 3 oz. 

Water 10  oz. 


Digested  48  hours  at  the  boiling  point  of  water.  Filt- 


ered. Concentrated  to  2 oz. 

No.  9. 

Leaves,  stems,  and  pods  (dry) 3 oz. 

Water 10  oz. 

Sulphuric  acid  (5%) 1 oz. 


Digested  48  hours  at  90°  C.  Filtered.  Sulphuric  acid 
removed.  Solution  concentrated  to  2 oz. 

Results  as  to  Activity  of  Extracts. 

Extract  No.  1.  Volume,  2 oz. 

Given  internally  to  full-grown  rabbit  at  11  a.  m.  No 
symptoms  at  5 p.  m.  Died  during  the  night. 

Extract  No.  2.  Volume,  2 oz. 

Given  to  full-grown  rabbit  at  11  a.  m.  No  symptoms  at 
5 p.  m.  Died  during  the  night. 

Extract  No.  3.  Volume,  2 oz. 

Given  internally  to  full-grown  rabbit  at  11  a.  m.  De- 
cided symptoms  at  1 130  p.  m.  Restoratives  administered. 
Died  at  6 p.  m. 

Extract  No.  4.  Volume,  75  oz. 

Given  by  drench  to  an  old  ewe  October  4,  at  2 145  p.  m. 
No  symptoms  indicated. 

Extract  No.  5.  Volume,  5 oz. 

Given  by  drench  to  dog  at  10  a.  m.  Decided  symptoms 
of  nausea  at  10:30  a.  m.  The  dog  vomited  repeatedly 
with  marked  straining.  In  a few  hours  the  symptoms 
disappeared. 

Extract  No.  6.  Volume,  25  oz. 

Given  to  yearling  calf  October  31,  at  11  a.  m.  No 
symptoms  observed  until  the  following  day,  at  9:45*  An- 
imal was  unable  to  rise,  and  had  a temperature  of  94-5° 
F.,  pulse  74,  respiration  12.  Died  at  2 p.  m.,  November  1. 


Jan.  1917 


Poisonous  Properties  of  Milk  Vetch. 


65 


Extract  No.  7.  Volume,  5 oz. 

Solution  “A”  given  to  full-grown  rabbit  at  1 p.  m.  Died 
at  6 p.  m.  Solution  “B”  given  to  rabbit  at  1 130  p.  m.  No 
indications  of  poisoning. 

Extract  No.  8.  Volume,  2 oz. 

Given  internally  to  full-grown  rabbit  at  11  a.  m.  At  1 
p.  m.  the  usual  symptoms  were  observed,  such  as  non- 
co-ordinated  movements  and  loss  of  control.  Rabbit  died 
at  4 p.  m. 

Extract  No.  9.  Volume,  2 oz. 

Given  internally  to  full-grown  rabbit  at  11  a.  m.  No 
symptoms  indicated. 

Conclusions. 

1.  The  data  so  far  obtained  indicate  that  a definite  active 
poison  is  present. 

2.  In  no  case  did  a rabbit  live  when  given  freshly  pre- 
pared extracts. 

3.  Although  the  old  ewe  showed  no  effects  from  a dose 
of  extractive  material  equivalent  to  fifteen  pounds  of  the  green 
plant,  yet  it  is  not  safe  to  presume  from  this  experiment  that 
the  vetch  is  not  poisonous  to  sheep,  for  (1)  only  one  sheep 
was  tested  and  (2)  green  plants  may  produce  an  effect  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  extract  of  the  dried  ones. 

4.  On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  a dog  can  empty 
its  stomach  by  vomiting  when  irritants  are  given,  we  have 
concluded  that  in  our  experiment  with  the  dog  not  enough  of 
the  poison  was  absorbed  to  manifest  itself. 

Future:  Work. 

Having  studied  the  general  nature  of  the  active  poison, 
our  next  step  will  be  to  conduct  feeding  experiments,  typifying 
range  conditions  as  far  as  possible,  and  to  study  the  problem 
of  milk  vetch  poisoning  from  the  point  of  view  of  symptoms 
and  specific  antidotes. 


66  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  112 


PART  II.  PHYSIOLOGICAL. 

BY  E).  H.  LEHNKRT. 


How  the:  Poison  Acts. 

From  experiments  carried  on  with  extracts  and  other 
preparations  from  this  plant,  our  observations  both  before  and 
after  death  have  led  to  a few  definite  conclusions.  When 
sufficient  poison  to  cause  death  is  introduced  into  the  system, 
whether  through  the  stomach  or  intravenously,  it  acts  quickly, 
that  is  it  is  quickly  absorbed,  and  very  soon  produces  symp- 
toms of  paralysis,  by  its  action  on  the  nervous  system;  the 
action  of  the  heart  is  also  interfered  with,  and  the  poison  no 
doubt  kills  by  acting  on  this  organ.  When  the  poison  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  stomach,  postmortem  examination  shows 
that  digestion  is  stopped  immediately,  as  invariably  this  organ 
remains  full  of  food,  indicating  that  the  poison  is  quickly 
absoTbed  from  the  stomach  and  that  the  stomach  is  paralyzed. 

Rsme:die:s  and  Methods  ot  Tre:atme;nt. 

Attempts  at  determining  an  antidote  for  the  poison  were 
made,  and,  although  few  in  number,  certain  conclusions  have 
been  reached.  Thus  far  no  chemical  antidote  has  been  ob- 
tained, but  from  the  obvious  action  of  the  poison  on  the  heart 
and  nervous  system  as  a depressant,  antidotes  of  a physiolog- 
ical nature  would  be  those  that  stimulate  these  organs,  such 
as  alcohol,  ammonia,  strychnine,  nitro-glycerine,  and  digitalis, 
belladonna  or  atropine.  In  our  experiments  we  were  able  to 
counteract  the  poison  for  a considerable  time,  although  in  no 
case  were  we  able  entirely  to  neutralize  its  action.  It  appears, 
however,  very  probable  that  the  remedies  mentioned  should 
prove  very  valuable  where  the  amount  of  poison  taken  into  the 
system  is  not  too  great. 

In  the  administration  of  remedies  in  case  of  poisoning, 
the  following  doses  and  methods  would  apply : Immediately 

give  to  full-grown  animal  (cow),  as  a drench,  i to  2 lbs.  of 


Jan.  1917 


Poisonous  Properties  of  Milk  Vetch. 


67 


Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  water;  vary  dose  with  size,  as  in 
all  cases  the  doses  given  are  for  mature  animals. 

Alcohol  should  be  administered  in  the  form  of  whiskey, 
brandy,  or  gin,  in  2 to  4-oz.  doses,  diluted  with  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  water,  the  dose  repeated  every  hour. 

Aromatic  Spirits  of  Ammonia  is  one  of  the  best  quick- 
acting heart  stimulants,  and  should  be  given  once  an  hour  in 
two-ounce  doses-,  diluted  with  three  volumes  of  water. 

Belladonna  fluid  extract  may  be  used  as  a heart  and  nerve 
stimulant  in  hourly  doses  of  2 drachms  in  a little  water.  This 
drug  would  work  well  combined  with  either  whiskey  or  aro- 
matic ammonia. 

Digitalis.  The  tincture  digitalis  may  be  given,  diluted 
with  water,  in  2 to  3 drachm  doses  every  3 to  4 hours. 

For  quick  action,  drugs  should  be  administered  hypoder- 
matically,  that  is,  injected  under  the  skin.  For  this  purpose 
-the  drugs  are  very  concentrated  and  put  up  in  tablet  form, 
very  soluble  in  water,  and  should  be  administered  with  the 
hypodermatic  syringe,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties  on 
the  market  at  prices  from  $2.00  up.  For  hypodermatic  uses 
in  poisoning  by  vetch,  I would  suggest  a compound  tablet 
consisting  of  strychnine,  nitro-glycerine,  and  digitalin  or  atro- 
pine, the  quantity  of  strychnine  being  not  over  2 grains ; the 
quantities  of  other  ingredients  will  not  matter  materially,  as 
the  compounders  put  them  up  in  the  right  proportion  to  give 
best  results.  In  using  the  hypodermatic  remedy  alone,  it 
should  be  administered  once  an  hour,  using  clean  boiled  water 
to  dissolve  the  tablet,  and  disinfecting  the  skin  at  the  point  of 
puncture  with  any  common  disinfectant  or  tincture  of  iodine. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  worst  stages  should  be  over  in 
3 to  4 hours,  and  if  the  vital  organs  can  be  kept  active  during 
this  period,  recovery  is  possible. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 
Officers 


TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  EL.  B President 

MARY  B.  DAVID! Vice  President 

C.  D.  SPALDING Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

Executive  Committee 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 


Appointed  Members  Expires 

1911 HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS.... 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH,  B.  S 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911 ,....HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A 1921 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915  HON.  J.  M.  CAREY,  LL.  B 1921 

EDITH  K.  O.  CLARK,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL 


C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D.... 
HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M. 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A 

C.  D.  MOIR 

A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

F E.  HEFNER,  M.  S 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,  M.  S 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

KARL  STEIK,  M.  A 

J W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

O.  A.  BEATH,  M.  A 

P.  T.  MEYERS,  B.  S.  A 

E H.  LEHNERT,  D.  V.  S. .. 


President 

Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

Secretary 

...Clerk 

Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

Research  Chemist 

Wool  Specialist 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Parasitologist 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Agronomist 

Veterinarian 


BULLETIN  NO.  113 


MARCH,  1917 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION 

LARAMIE,  WYOMING 


THE  EFFECT  OF  ALKALI  UPON 
PORTLAND  CEMENT 

By  KARL  STEIK 


Bulletins  will  be  sent  free  upon  request. 

Address : Director  Experiment  Station,  Laramie,  Wyoming. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 
Officers 


TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B President 

MARY  B.  DAVID Vice  President 

C.  D.  SPALDING  Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 


Executive  Committee 


A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  W.  S.  INGHAM 


Members  Term 

Appointed  Expires 

1911 HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH,  B.  S 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911 HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A 1921 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915  HON.  J.  M.  CAREY,  LL.  B 1921 

EDITH  K.  O.  CLARK,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Pb.  D.,  LL.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL 


C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D 

HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M. 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A 

C.  D.  MOIR 

A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,  M.  S 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S 

KARL  STEIK,  M A 

J.  W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D 

O.  A.  BEATH,  M.  A 

P.  T.  MEYERS,  B.  S.  A 

E.  H.  LEHNERT,  D.  V.  S... 


President 

Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

Secretary 

...Clerk 

Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

Research  Chemist 

Wool  Specialist 

Irrigation  Engineer 

Animal  Husbandman 

Agronomist 

Engineering  Chemist 

Parasitologist 

Research  Chemist 

Assistant  Agronomist 

Veterinarian 


The  Effect  of  Alkali  on  Portland  Cement. 


BY  KARL  STEIK. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  word  “alkali”  as  used  in  the  western  United  States 
designates  the  chlorides,  sulphates,  and  carbonates  of  sodium 
and  magnesium  and  sometimes  of  calcium.  Sodium  carbonate 
is  usually  called  “black  alkali”,  because  the  organic  matter 
which  it  dissolves  from  the  soils  makes  solutions  which  have 
a dark  color. 

The  composition  of  alkali  varies  greatly  according  to  the 
region  where  it  is  found.  In  most  cases  the  sulphates  of  so- 
dium, magnesium,  and  calcium  are  the  most  abundant  salts. 
The  nitrates  are  present  only  in  very  small  quantities  in  this 
state  and,  therefore,  they  are  not  considered  in  this  work. 
Alkali  from  different  localities  in  Wyoming  shows  great  varia- 
tions in  regard  to  the  proportion  that  is  insoluble  in  i :i  hydro- 
chloric acid — a variation  from  1.6  per  cent  to  27.9  per  cent. 
The  following  table  shows  the  variations  of  ingredients  in 
alkali  crusts: 

Acid  insoluble  part:  1.6  per  cent  to  27.9  per 
cent ; silica : trace  to  0.8  per  cent ; alumina  and  iron 
oxide:  0.1  per  cent  to  1.6  per  cent;  calcium  oxide: 

1. 1 per  cent  to  6.0  per  cent;  magnesia:  0.2  per  cent 
to  21.6  per  cent;  sodium  oxide:  18.4  per  cent  to 
41.2  per  cent;  potassium  oxide:  0.4  per  cent  to 
1.5  per  cent;  anhydride  of  sulphuric  acid:  27.6 

per  cent  to  51.4  per  cent;  carbon  dioxide:  0.6  per 
cent  to  3.8  per  cent ; organic  matter : trace  to  4.2 
per  cent ; chlorine : 0.1  per  cent  to  1.8  per  cent. 

The  concentration  of  the  alkali  salts  dissolved  in  water  is 
also  subject  to  great  variations.  The  water  in  small  alkali 
lakes  may  even  become  saturated  with  these  salts,  usually 


72  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


either  sodium  sulphate  or  magnesium  sulphate,  or  with  both 
of  them  with  smaller  quantities  of  sodium  chloride  present. 

I.  Chemical  Changes. 

In  order  to  study  the  chemical  changes  and  the  resulting 
physical  changes,  which  take  place  in  cement  when  in  contact 
with  alkalis,  cement  cubes  and  (briquettes  were  put  in  solutions 
of  various  salts  of  different  concentrations;  the  proportion  of 
water  or  solution  to  cement  being  the  same  in  all  cases,  namely, 
i cc.  per  gram  of  block,  whether  of  neat  cement  or  mortar. 
Unless  otherwise  stated,  the  blocks  were  allowed  to  set  7 days 
in  water  before  being  immersed  in  the  solutions.  The  strength 
of  these  solutions  varied  from  1 per  cent  to  10  per  cent,  and 
were  made  up  as  follows : 

No.  1.  5 per  cent  NaCl. 

No.  2.  5 per  cent  MgS04. 

No.  3.  1 per  cent  Na2S04. 

No.  4.  5 per  cent  Na2S04. 

No.  5.  10  per  cent  Na2S04. 

No.  6.  5 per  cent  Na2C03. 

No.  7.  5 per  cent  NaHCCb. 

No.  8.  1 per  cent  Nad. 

No.  9.  1 per  cent  NaCl,  1 per  cent  Na2COs,  and  3 per 

cent  Na2S04. 

No.  10.  1.25  per  cent  NaCl,  1.25  per  cent  Na2S04, 

1.25  per  cent  MgCL,  and  1.25  per  cent 
MgS04. 

No.  11.  1.33  per  cent  CaCl2,  1.33  per  cent  MgCL, 

and  1.33  per  cent  NaCl. 

No.  12.  1.66  per  cent  NaCl,  1.66  per  cent  Na2C03, 

and  1.66  per  cent  Na2S04. 

No.  13.  3 per  cent  NaCl,  3 per  cent  Na2C03,  and  3 

per  cent  Na2S04. 

No.  14.  2.5  per  cent  NaCl  and  2.5  per  cent  Na2S04. 

Table  I shows  the  analyses  of  cements  that  had  been  in 
solution  for  30  months. 


Tabus  I — Showing  the  Chemical  Analyses  of  Blocks  of  Neat  Cement  that  Have  Been  Immersed  for  30  Months 

in  Various  Solutions. 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


73 


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11.83 

1 30.90 
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*Not  determined. 

tVery  little;  not  determined. 


74  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  113 


Crystalline  Deposits. 

From  the  solutions  of  sulphates  of  sodium  and  magne- 
sium, hydrated  calcium  sulphate  (CaS04,  2H20)  was  depos- 
ited upon  the  surface  of  the  cement,  either  as  single  crystals  or 
as  groups  of  crystals,  radiating  from  a center,  as  shown  in 
Figures  i and  2,  or  more  rarely  in  the  amorphous  form.  The 
latter  occurred  most  often  in  cements  low  in  lime  content. 


Fig.  1. 


The  chemical  analyses  of  the  calcium  sulphate  crystals 
gave  the  following  averages:  Water  21.0  per  cent;  CaO, 

32.5  per  cent ; So3,  46.3  per  cent.  The  crystals  selected  for  the 
analyses  were  entirely  free  from  adhering  cement  and  solution. 
Since  Ca(OH)2  is  present  in  cement,  it  must  he  assumed  that 
the  following  reaction  took  place  with  sodium  sulphate : 

Ca  ( OH ) 2+Na2S04+aq.=CaS04.2H20+2Na0H+aq. 

In  the  case  of  magnesium  sulphate,  magnesium  hydroxide  is 
formed  and  deposited  as  a flocculent  precipitate.  It  was  ob- 
tained in  a fairly  pure  state  by  the  repeated  suspension  in 
water  of  finely  ground  mixtures  containing  magnesium  hydrox- 
ide and  cement,  and  their  subsequent  settling  and  separation  in  a 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


75 


Fig.  2. 

separatory  funnel.  The  magnesium  hydroxide  was  dried  between 
filter  paper  and  weighed  for  analysis.  The  analyses  gave  the  fol- 
lowing average : Water,  59.6  per  cent ; magnesium  oxide 

(MgO),  39.1  per  cent.  Small  quantities  of  Si02,  CaO,  and  C02 
were  also  present.  Accordingly,  in  MgS04  solutions,  the  fol- 
lowing reaction  took  place : 

Ca  ( OH ) 2-  MgS04-haq.=CaS04.2H20+Mg  ( OH ) 2+aq. 
From  solutions  of  sodium  carbonate,  calcium  carbonate  was 
formed  and  deposited  on  the  blocks  in  small  amorphous  grains. 
The  sample  for  analysis  was  washed  free  from  soluble  car- 
bonate, dried,  weighed,  and  dissolved  in  very  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Only  a very  small  portion  was  left  undissolved. 
The  solution  was  then  evaporated  to  dryness.  The  residue 
gave  CaO,  56.3  per  cent,  as  calculated  for  the  original  weight 
of  sample,  minus  the  amount  insoluble  in  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid.  Figure  3 shows  how  the  calcium  carbonate  (the  lighter 
area)  is  deposited  on  the  cement  .blocks. 


76  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


Fig.  4. 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


77 


From  solutions  of  chlorides  of  sodium  and  magnesium, 
at  first  only  calcium  hydroxide  was  obtained.  Figure  4 shows 
the  crystals  of  calcium  hydroxide  and  Figure  5 shows  the 
crystals  as  they  were  formed  on  cement.  The  largest  crystals 
were  about  one-eighth  to  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. The  crystals  were  cleaned  from  adhering  cement  and 
then  gave  the  following  analysis:  CaO,  75.7  per  cent;  water, 
24.6  per  cent ; and  very  little  carbon  dioxide. 


Fig.  5. 

The  deposits  described  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  were 
scraped  off  the  surface  of  the  blocks  several  times.  The  time 
required  for  the  formation  of  a new  visible  crop  was  from  two 
weeks  to  two  months. 

Secondary  Deposits  from  Sodium  Chloride  Solution: 
Silicates. — On  the  cement  which  was  in  a 5 per  cent  sodium 


78  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


chloride  solution  for  approximately  three  years  (solution  not 
changed)  crystals  appeared  which,  after  cleaning,  gave  the 

changed)  crystals  appeared 
which,  after  cleaning,  gave 
the  following  analytical  re- 
sults: Si02,  40.14  per  cent ; 
ALA,  3148  per  cent;  Fe203, 
0.11  per  cent;  CaO,  10.09 
per  cent;  Na20,  14.13  per 
cent ; Cl,  4.39  per  cent.  Fig- 
ure 6 shows  these  silicate 
crystals. 

Calcium  Hydroxide  Depos- 
its from  Other  Solutions. — 
No  deposits  of  definite  com- 
position were  obtained  in  solutions  which  contained  more  than 
one  $alt,  except  that  calcium  hydroxide  was  obtained  from  solu- 
tions of  sodium  chloride  or  magnesium  chloride,  or  from 
solutions  containing  both  these  salts.  Calcium  hydroxide  was 
also  obtained  from  cement  in  distilled  water  and  in  solutions 
of  sodium  hydroxide. 

II.  Physical  Changes. 

v - ■ - • - - 

Strength  tests  were  made  before  the  immersion  of  the 
cement  in  the  solutions  of  alkali,  salts,  then  after  12  months, 
24  months,  30  months,  and  40  months  in  solutions.  After  each 
testing  the  cement  was  put  into  a fresh  solution,  one  cc.  of  the 
solution  being  used  per  gram  of  cement  or  mortar.  The 
blocks  were  tested  for  soundness  previous  to  using  them  for 
the  experiments.  The  weight  of  the  individual  cubes  or  bri- 
quettes never  varied  more  than  3 per  cent.  A table  showing  all 
the  individual  strength  tests  for  each  set  of  blocks  is  given  in 
the  Appendix.  The  average  compression  and  tension  of  each 
set  at  the  end  of  each  period  is  given  in  Table  II. 


Fig.  6. 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


79 


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80  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  113 


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March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


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82  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


The  changes  in  strength  are  not  very  great,  but  they  are 
rather  characteristic.  One  of  the  facts  made  apparent  by  the 
data  from  the  strength  tests  is  that  immersion  in  solutions  of 
alkali  salts  does  not  interfere  with  the  setting  of  either  neat 
cement  or  mortars.  Even  cements  which  were  in  water  as 
long  as  three  months  previous  to  immersion  in  the  solutions, 
and  were  supposed  to  have  reached  practically  the  limit  of 
strength,  showed  a marked  increase  of  strength  after  the  first 
period  in  solution.  (See  No.  n and  No.  12.)  In  some  cases 
the  changes  in  tension  and  compression  strength  did  not  have 
the  same  sign.  The  writer  has  no  explanation  for  this  phe- 
nomenon. As  a measure  of  the  change  of  strength’  during  the 
periods,  the  mean  of  the  change  tension  and  compression  was 
taken,  and  is  shown  in  Table  III. 

In  all  cases,  except  two,  where  comparison  was  possible, 
there  was  a period  where  the  cements  in  solutions  were  as 
strong  or  even  stronger  than  similar  cement  kept  in  distilled 
water  during  the  same  period.  For  these  comparisons  the 
mean  of  the  tension  and  compression  strength  is  taken,  as 
compared  to  the  strength  of  cement  originally  put  in  distilled 
water.  These  comparisons  are  shown  in  Table  IV. 

III.  Discussion  of  the  Data. 

Theories  Concerning  Change  in  Molecular  Volume. — The 
decrease  in  the  strength  of  cement  that  has  been  subjected  to 
the  action  of  alkali  is  ascribed  by  some  experimenters  to 
changes  of  volume.  The  chief  reacting  substance  in  the  ce- 
ment is  lime,  in  the  form  of  calcium  hydroxide.  With  the 
sulphate  salts  of  sodium  and  magnesium  it  forms  calcium 
sulphate  (CaS04.2H20)  and  sodium  hydroxide  with  the 
former  and  calcium  sulphate  and  magnesium  hydroxide  with 
the  latter.  The  ratio  of  the  molecular  volume  of  calcium  hy- 
droxide to  the  molecular  volume  of  calcium  sulphate  formed 
in  the  reaction  is  as  1:1,  98.  The  sodium  hydroxide  formed  in 
the  reaction  stays  in  solution.  In  the  case  of  magnesium  sul- 
phate the  ratio  of  the  molecular  volume  of  the  calcium  hydrox- 


Table  III — Showing  Change  of  Strength  of  Cement  Blocks  During  a Period  in  Salt  Solutions  Expressed  as 
Per  Cent,  Computed  on  the  Strength  of  the  Green  Cement  at  the  Last  Preceding  Test. 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


83 


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Sol.  6,  Na2C03,  5 per  cent +20.2  -1.5!  +9.3  ! , -2.6  —4.1  -3.3  j -5.3  -18.1 


84  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


Table  III — (Continued). 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


85 


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86  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 


Bulletin  No.  113 


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t30  days  in  water  before  immersion. 


Table  HI — (Continued). 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


87 


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Table  IV — Showing  the  Strength  of  Cement  Blocks  Before  and  After  Given  Periods  in  Salt  Solutions 
pressed  as  Per  Cent  of  the  Strength  of  Cement  Blocks  in  Water  for  a Similar  Length  of  Time. 


88 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 

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After  being  in  solution: 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


89 


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Table  IV—  (Continued) . 


90 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


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Table  IV — (Continued). 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


91 


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Before  Immersion 


92  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


40  months 

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Bulletin  No.  113 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


93 


ide  originally  in  the  set  cement  to  the  molecular  volume  of  cal- 
cium sulphate  and  magnesium  hydroxide  formed  in  the  reac- 
tion is  as  i :2,  78.  The  disintegration  of  cement  is  ascribed 
as  being  due  to  this  formation  of  compounds  with  larger  mol- 
ecular volumes,  causing  expansion  and  consequent  cracking. 
(Bulletin  81  of  the  Montana  Experiment  Station.).  Another 
theory,  similar  to  the  above,  is  held  by  several  experimenters. 
According  to  this  theory,  tricalcium-sulpho-aluminate  is  formed 
and  this  then  causes  the  expansion  and  disintegration  of  ce- 
ment. In  Technologic  Paper  No.  12  of  the  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards, by  Messrs.  Bates,  Phillips,  and  Wig,  it  has  been  conclu- 
sively proved  tnat  this  compound  is  not  and  could  not  be 
formed. 

Of  the  neat  cement  at  the  end  of  40  months,  set  No.  6,  in 
5 per  cent  Na2S04  solution,  had  the  lowest  strength:  59.1  per 
cent  of  the  strength  of  cement  in  water.  This  set  was  14  days 
in  water  previous  to  immersion  in  the  solution.  Another  set, 
No.  4,  which  was  7 days  in  water  previous  to  immersion  in  the 
solution,  had  the  next  lowest  strength : 79.5  per  cent.  Set  5, 
14  days  in  water,  in  10  per  cent  sodium  sulphate  solution,  had 
80  per  cent  of  the  strength  of  cement  in  water.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears that  the  sodium  sulphate  solution  was  the  most  injurious, 
since  all  the  sets  immersed  in  it  had  low  strength. 

The  cement  in  5 per  cent  magnesium  sulphate  solution  had 
only  85.9  per  cent  strength,  showing  that  it  also  was  injurious, 
although  not  in  as  high  degree  as  the  5 per  cent  sodium  sul- 
phate solution.  Yet,  according  to  the  change-of-volume  theory, 
the  magnesium  sulphate  solution  ought  to  be  the  more  injurious 
of  the  two.  For,  according  to  this  theory,  when  the  cement  is 
acted  upon  by  the  sodium  sulphate  solution,  the  ratio  of  the 
volume  of  the  insoluble  product  formed  in  place  of  the  calcium 
hydroxide  originally  in  the  cement,  to  the  volume  of  the  cor- 
responding product  formed  by  the  action  of  the  magnesium 
sulphate  solution  is  as  1.98  to  2.78. 

Experiments  to  Test  Change-of-Volume  Theories. — In 
order  to  test  whether  or  not  the  larger  molecular  volume  re- 


94  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


spectively  of  CaSC>4,  2H20  and  'CaSo42H2O^Mg(OH)2  in  place 
of  the  Ca(OH)2  was  the  cause  of  disintegration,  the  following 
experiment  was  conducted : 

The  sodium  hydroxide  formed  in  the  reaction  between 
Ca(OH)2  and  Na2S04  was  neutralized  daily  with  sulphuric 
acid.  When  no  further  alkaline  reaction  took  place,  it  was  as- 
sumed that  all  the  calcium  hydroxide  had  been  reacted  upon, 
and  consequently  the  maximum  amount  of  calcium  sulphate 
had  been  formed.  At  this  time,  according  to  the  theory,  the 
cement  should  have  been  the  weakest.  Figure  7 represents  the 


Fig.  7. 


results  graphically.  After  24  months,  the  time  when  the  reac- 
tion in  question  had  just  been  completed,  the  compression 
strength  of  the  cement  was  practically  at  it  highest  point. 

Figure  11  shows  the  effects  caused  by  changes  of  volume, 
which  were  obtained  in  a mixture  of  one  part  of  underbumed 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


95 


Fig.  11. 

cement  to  two  parts  of  standard  sand.  If  changes  of  volume 
were  produced  and  were  the  cause  of  disintegration  of  cement 
in  alkali  solutions,  then  cracking  somewhat  similar  to  that 
shown  in  the  figure  should  appear  in  some  other  set  out  of 
the  sixty  used  in  the  experiment. 

Out  of  all  the  sets  used  in  the  experiments  No.  21,  the  only 
cement  that  was  completely  disintegrated,  was  a mortar  of  one 
part  of  cement  to  three  parts  of  sand.  It  was  in  a solution  of 
chlorides  and  sulphates  of  sodium  and  magnesium.  If  disin- 
tegration is  caused  by  expansion  or  contraction,  there  should 
not  be  such  a striking  difiference  between  neat  cement  and  a 
1 :3  mortar. 


96  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


Lime  Content  and  Strength. — A comparison  of  the  srength 
of  sets  No.  7 and  No.  12  shows  that  the  5 per  cent  sodium 
chloride  solution  was  more  injurious  than  the  1 per  cent  solu- 
tion. The  analyses  of  the  cements  in  these  solutions  show 
that  the  lime  content  of  cement  in  the  5 per  cent  sodium  chlo- 
ride solution  is  less  than  the  line  content  of  cement  in  the  1 
per  cent  sodium  chloride  solution.  The  analyses  of  the  solu- 
tions gave  the  following  amounts  of  CaO  per  100  cc.  of  solu- 
tion : 

100  cc.  of  5 per  cent  solution  of  NaCl  contained 
0.1667  gram  of  CaO. 

100  cc.  of  1 per  cent  solution  of  NaCl  contained 
0.1106  gram  of  CaO. 

So  there  is  a difference  of  0.0561  gram  per  100  cc. 

Since  there  was  no  noticeable  difference  in  the  chlorine 
content  of  the  cement  in  these  two  solutions,  it  might  be  as- 
sumed that  the  amount  of  the  chlorine-containing  compound 
formed  in  the  cement  was  the  same  in  the  two  solutions  of 
different  strength. 

Effect  of  Not  Changing  the  Solution  and  Titrating  With 
Acid. — As  already  stated,  the  change  of  strength  usually  is  such 
that  the  cement  increases  in  strength  up  to  the  maximum  and 
after  that  there  is  a slow  decrease.  The  highest  point  usually 
is  as  high  as,  or  somewhat  higher,  than  the  highest  point  of 
cement  in  distilled  water.  The  only  sets  where  neither  the 
tensile  nor  compression  strength  ever  became  as  high  as  that  of 
cement  in  water,  are  sets  4 and  6,  both  in  5 per  cent  sodium 
sulphate  solution.  Set  No.  45,  also  in  5 per  cent  sodium  sul- 
phate solution  which  was  never  changed,  but  which  titrated  to 
neutrality  once  a week  with  sulphuric  acid,  had  an  average 
strength  after  40  months  of  103.4  per  cent  of  the  strength  of 
cement  in  water.  Set  No.  39  was  put  in  distilled  water  and, 
afterwards,  sulphuric  acid  was  added  daily  to  slightly  acid 
reaction.  This  cement  had  113.0  per  cent  strength. 

The  appearance  of  cement  No.  39  and  No.  45  was  per- 
fectly sound — cubes  as  well  as  briquettes.  The  corners  were 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


97 


as  sharp  as  before  and  no  swelling  or  warping  was  observed. 
Figure  8 shows  the  appearance  of  cement  briquettes  and  cubes 
from  set  No.  4.  Figure  9 shows  how  layers  of  cement  are  suc- 
cessively falling  off. 


Fic.  8. 

Cementing  Effect  of  Calcium  Sulphate. — In  sulphate  solu- 
tions the  comparison  of  the  relative  effects  of  solutions  of  dif- 
ferent concentration  is  rather  difficult.  The  formation  of  cal- 
cium sulphate  seems  to  increase  the  strength  of  cement,  for  it 
acts  as  a cementing  medium.  This  fact  was  more  clearly  dem- 
onstrated when  two  halves  of  a briquette  were  put  close  to- 
gether in  sodium  sulphate  solution,  and  after  four  months  it 


98 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


Fig.  9. 


. Fig.  10. 


took  a force  of  245  pounds  to  pull  them  apart.  Figure  10 
shows  how  two  briquettes  were  cemented  together.  When  pulled 
apart,  the  inside  surfaces  were  found  to  be  covered  with 
amorphous  and  crystalline  calcium  sulphate.  Another  pair  of 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


99 


halves  was  put  in  distilled  water,  and  there  no  cohesion  was 
observed. 

Decrease  of  Strength  Caused  by  Solvent  Action. 

The  factor  with  the  tendency  to  decrease  the  strength  of 
cement  is  the  solvent  action  of  the  solution.  That  the  solvent 
action  must  have  a noticeable  influence  is  evident  from  sets 
No  39  and  No.  45,  in  which  the  solution  never  was  changed. 

The  solubility  of  CaS04  in  a 1 per  cent  sodium  sulphate 
solution  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  in  a 5 per  cent  sodium 
hydroxide  solution.  The  comparison  of  sets  No.  3 and  No.  6 
shows  that  at  the  end  of  40  months  the  strength  was  nearly  the 
same : 

Compression,  10,712  and  10,815. 

Tension,  806  and  688. 

The  solvent  effect  of  solutions  of  alkali  salts  was  tested 
with  small  qualities  of  cement,  which  were  agitated  with  large 
volumes  of  solutions.  The  cement  had  not  been  treated  with 
water  for  setting.  As  much  as  .62.4  per  cent  of  the  lime  and 
58.6  per  cent  of  Si02  was  leached  out  by  sodium  sulphate 
solution. 


100  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 

The  rather  slow  decrease  of  strength  supports  the  as- 
sumption that  the  solvent  action  is  the  ultimate  cause  of  disin- 
tegration. The  gradual  peeling  off  of  layers  also  indicates  that 
the  effects  are  like  those  of  a dissolving  action.  Figure  17 
shows  the  effect  that  disintegration  has  on  the  appearance  of 
1 13  mortar.  The  mortar  gradually  crumbles,  much  the  same 
as  sandstone  from  which  the  cementing  material  is  slowly 
being  removed. 


Fig.  12. 

Carbonates  Retard  Solution. — Figure  12  shows  diagram- 
matically  a comparison  of  the  effects  of  a solution  containing 
carbonate  with  one  not  containing  it.  The  mortar  in  the  chlo- 
ride-sulphate solution  is  completely  disintegrated,  while  the 
mortar  in  the  chloride-sulphate-carbonate  solution  has  shown 
just  a slight  decrease.  The  sodium  carbonate  formed  with 
calcium  (the  chief  element  of  cement),  a highly  insoluble 
calcium  carbonate,  while  the  solubility  of  calcium  sulphate  in 
a chloride-sulphate  solution  is  approximately  0.7  gram  per 


100  cc. 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


101 


Increase  of  Solvent  Action  Caused  by  Sodium  Hydrox- 
ide.— Since  in  the  reaction  with  sodium  sulphate,  sodium 
hydroxide  is  formed,  some  cement  (No.  38)  was  put  in  a 5 
per  cent  sodium  hydroxide  solution.  After  the  cement  had 
reached  its  maximum  strength,  there  was  a regular  decrease 
of  strength  of  about  10  per  cent  during  each  period.  The  total 
strength  changes  as  shown  in  Table  IV  were  as  follows:  97.1 
per  cent,  123.9  Per  cent,  113.8  per  cent,  103.3  Per  cent,  93-9 
per  cent.  Hence  in  the  effects  on  cement  produced  in  sodium 
sulphate  solutions,  the  influence  of  sodium  hydroxide  must  be 
also  taken  into  consideration.  This  factor  also  enters  when 
solutions  of  sodium  carbonate  are  used. 

Effect  of  Sodium  Carbonate. — Solutions  of  sodium  car- 
bonate alone  affect  chiefly  the  silica  of  the  cement  and  in  a 
smaller  degree  the  calcium.  A small  quantity  of  cement  was 
leached  with  large  volumes  of  sodium  carbonate  solution,  after 
which  the  cement  gave  the  following  analysis : 

So02,  8.54  per  cent ; Al203+Fe203,  7.01  per  cent ; 
CaO,  46.22  per  cent;  MgO,  2.41  per  cent;  S03  0.20 
per  cent;  Na20+K20,  3.2  per  cent;  C02,  32.01  per 
cent,  and  a trace  of  chlorine.  (Compare  analysis  of 
set  15  in  Table  I.) 


Fig.  13.  Fig.  14. 


That  the  carbonate  reacts  with  a bigger  portion  of  cement 
than  does  the  sulphate  solution  is  shown  in  Figures  13  and  14. 


102  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


Two  small  cakes  of  cement  of  equal  weight  were  each  put  into 
a flask  and  treated  with  equal  volumes  of  equivalent  solutions 
of  sodium  carbonate  and  of  sodium  sulphate,  respectively.  The 
sodium  carbonate  (Figure  13)  has  reacted  with  nearly  all  of 
the  cement,  while  the  sodium  sulphate  (Figure  14)  has  re- 
acted with  hut  a small  portion  of  it.  The  cake  in  Figure  13 
is  nearly  all  white  from  the  calcium  carbonate  formed,  while 
Figure  14  shows  the  natural  cement  color. 

The  change  in  the  strength  of  cement  in  sodium  carbonate 
solutions  is  not  so  great  as  in  sodium  sulphate  solutions.  The 
sodium  carbonate  reacts  slowly ; the  calcium  carbonate  formed 
is  very  insoluble ; the  attack  on  silica  is  slight  as  long  as  there 
is  unchanged  calcium  present ; and  supposedly  the  calcium  car- 
bonate formed,  at  least  to  some  extent,  acts  as  a cementing 
substance.  This  last  conclusion  may  be  drawn  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  cake  in  Figure  13.  Although  the  appearance 
of  the  cement  was  entirely  changed,  it  was  still  a strong  mass, 
without  showing  apparent  signs  of  weakening.  In  a 5 per  cent 
sodium  carbonate  solution  the  strength  changed  as  follows  after 
the  different  periods:  132.5  per  cent,  102. 1 per  cent,  98.5  per 

cent,  102.6  per  cent.  As  might  be  expected,  the  decrease  of 
strength  in  a 5 per  cent  sodium  acid  carbonate  solution  was 
more  rapid,  after  the  highest  point  was  reached,  viz. : 123.3 
per  cent,  1 10.6  per  cent,  93  per  cent. 

Effect  of  Two  or  More  Salts  Combined. — Solutions  con- 
taining chlorides,  sulphates,  and  carbonates  had  a lesser  weak- 
ening effect  than  the  solutions  containing  only  one  salt.  The 
combinations  tried  are  not  sufficient  to  decide  which  of  these 
salts  in  the  combination  of  three  has  a retarding  influence,  and 
which  has  an  accelerating  influence.  Figure  15  shows  graph- 
ically the  effect  of  a sodium  chloride-sulphate-carbonate  solu- 
tion upon  the  compression  strength  of  a 1 :i  mortar  (upper 
curve)  and  the  effect  of  a sodium  chloride-sulphate  solution 
upon  a similar  mortar  (lower  curve).  Figure  16  shows  the 
same  for  tensile  strength.  At  the  end  of  40  months  in  the 
solution  containing  the  carbonate  the  cement  had  not  reached 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


103 


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its  maximum  strength,  while  in  the  solution  that  contained  no 
carbonate,  a markeed  decrease  in  strength  had  already  occurred. 


104  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  113 


The  cements  mixed  with  varying  strengths  of  sulphuric  acid 
reached  a high  strength  and  kept  it  all  during  the  time  of  the 
experiment.  The  cement  which  was  mixed  with  5 per  cent 
acetic  aldehyde  (No.  35)  reached  a strength  as  high  as  nor- 
mal, but  it  afterwards  showed  a rapid  decrease  in  strength, 
which  fact  seems  to  indicate  that  organic  substances  in  contact 
with  cement  may  have  a considerable  influence. 

Figure  18  is  a microphotograph  of  cement  from  set  No.  4, 
the  weakest  cement,  from  5 per  cent  sodium  sulphate  solution, 
and  Figure  19  shows  set  No.  45,  the  strongest  cement,  from  5 
per  cent  sodium  sulphate  solution.  There  is  no  noticeable  dif- 
ference in  appearance. 

Probable  Reactions. — The  analyses  in  Taible  I seem  to 
point  to  the  conclusion  that  besides  the  reactions  of  the  single 
salts  with  calcium  hydroxide,  there  is  also  a change  in  the 
silicates  as  might  be  indicated  by  the  variation  of  constitu- 
tional water.  The  increase  of  sodium  content  might  be  due 
to  the  formation  of  compounds  identical  or  analogous  to  the 
one  mentioned  previously. 

In  solutions  containing  more  than  one  salt,  apparently 
other  reactions,  besides  the  ones  mentioned  before,  take  place, 
namely,  reactions  between  reaction  products  and  salts.  Fol- 
lowing are  the  reactions  which  very  probably  take  place,  judg- 
ing from  the  effects  upon  the  lime  and  silica  contents  in  cement, 
which  had  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  different  alkali  salts : 

1.  Ca  ( OH ) 2+Na2S04+aq.->CaS04.2H20+2Na0H  aq. 

2.  Ca  ( OH ) 2+MgS04+aq.^CaS04.2H40+Mg ( OH ) 2+aq. 

3.  Ca  ( OH ) 2-+  Na2C03+aq.-^CaC03+2Na0H-f aq. 

4.  CaC03-tNaCl-^Na2C03+CaCl2. 

5.  0a€O34Na2SO4— >Na2C034CaS04. 

6.  CaS04+NaCl— >CaCl2+Na2S04. 

7.  M silicate+Na2C03— >sodium  silicate+M  carbonate. 

Of  these  reactions,  the  first  three  take  place  rather  rapidly. 
The  last  four  reactions  take  place  rather  slowly  and  their  ef- 
fects might  be  called  solvent  effects.  The  degree  of  their  ac- 
tion depends  chiefly  upon  the  relative  proportions  of  reagents 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


105 


and  products,  as  these  reactions  (except  the  seventh)  are  re- 
versible. 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  19. 


In  these  experiments  the  conditions  have  been  such  that 
the  reversible  reactions  did  not  progress  much  towards  the 
right.  In  other  cases,  where  experimenters  have  used  large 
quantities  of  solutions,  complete  disintegration  has  been  ob- 
tained. 


106  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


The  results  of  the  following  experiment  add  support  to 
the  opinion  that  the  first  three  reactions  are  not  the  cause  of 
final  and  complete  disintegration. 

Neat  “Ideal”  cement  was  taken.  It  had  been  four  years 
in  water  and  had  reached  the  following  strength : 

Tension  Compression 

845  u,37° 

84O  11,170 

11,500 


Average:  843  Average:  11,347 

Two  sets  of  this  cement,  composed  of  two  briquettes  and  three 
cubes  each,  and  weighing  396  grams  a set,  were  heated  for  50 
hours  on  a water  bath.  One  set  was  heated  with  distilled  water, 
2 cc.  per  gram  of  cement,  and  the  other  with  saturated  mag- 
nesium sulphate  solution,  also  2 cc.  per  gram  of  cement.  The 
resulting  strengths  were  as  follows : 


■T  ension — 

— Comp  ressio  n — 

A 

B 

A 

B 

Cement 

in  Cement  in  sat- 

water 

urated  solution 

620 

595 

10,270 

11,760 

570 

615 

9.130 

10,560 

10,708 

8,250 

Averages:  595 

605 

10,060 

i°,iS7 

Correspondingly  the  change  of  strength  expressed  in 

per  cent 

was  as  follows : 

■T  ension— 

— Compression — 

A 

B 

A 

B 

—29.4 

— 28.2 

— 11.3 

— 10.2 

March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


107 


Table  V — Showing  t' e Relation  of  the  Content  of  Water  of  Constitu- 
tion, Calcium,  and  Silica  to  the  Strength  of  Cement,  After  Immer- 
sion in  Salt  Solutions. 


[ No.  of  set  I 

NUMBER  OF  SOLUTION 

Water  of 
constitu' 
tion 

Si02 

CaO 

Strength 
compared 
with  that 
of  cement 
in  water 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

15 

Distilled  water  (for  comparison) 

21.2 

18.66 

44.13 

100 

1 

Sol.  1,  5 per  cent  NaCl 

15.32 

18.55 

46.29 

115 

14 

Sol.  10,  1.25  per  cent  each  of  NaCl, 
Na2S04,  MgCl2  and  MgS04 

18.13 

21.30 

30.90 

91 

4 

Sol.  4,  5 per  cent  Na2S04 

18.80 

17.88 

40.53 

81 

5 

Sol.  5,  10  per  cent  Na2S04 

20.63 

15.72 

43.25 

72 

6 

Sol.  4,  5 per  cent  Na2S04 

17.5 

18.31 

40.10 

68 

Relation  of  Silica  or  Lime  Content  to  Strength. — Table  V 
gives  the  strength  of  cement  in  solutions  and  the  silica,  calcium, 
and  constitutional-water  contents  after  30  months  in  solution. 
Strength  of  cement  in  water=ioo.  A comparison  shows  that 
in  the  cements  which  are  below  100  in  strength  either  the  silica 
or  lime  content  is  lower  than  in  cements  that  are  100  or  above. 
In  most  cases  the  content  of  both  lime  and  silica  is  lower.  The 
analysis  of  No.  14  shows  an  example  of  the  effect  of  the  in- 
creased solvent  action  of  NaCl  upon  the  reaction  product 
CaS04.2H30,  the  lime  content  being  lower  than  in  sets  sub- 
ject to  the  action  of  any  of  the  other  solutions. 


108  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


SUMMARY. 

1.  Cement  put  in  solutions  of  alkali  salts  sets  as  well  as 
in  water. 

2.  In  solutions  of  sodium  sulphate  CaS04.2H20  is  formed. 

3.  In  solutions  of  magnesium  sulphate  CaS04,  2H20,  and 
Mg  (OH)  2 are  formed. 

4.  In  solutions  of  sodium  chloride  a silicate  is  formed. 
The  high  percentage  of  sodium  in  this  silicate  is  likely  the  rea- 
son for  the  increase  of  insoluble  sodium  in  cement. 

5.  Sodium  chloride  in  solution  or  its  presence  in  solution 
with  other  alkali  salts  has  its  effect  chiefly  through  a solvent 
action. 

/ 

6.  Of  the  solutions  tested,  the  5 per  cent  sodium  sulphate 
solution  had  the  greatest  disintegrating  effects. 

7.  Solutions  containing  chlorides,  sulphates,  and  carbon- 
ates had  the  least  effect. 

8.  Mortars  disintegrate  faster  than  neat  cement. 

9.  The  formation  of  compounds  with  molecular  volumes 
larger  than  the  molecular  volume  of  calcium  hydroxide  is  not 
the  cause  of  disintegration  of  cement. 

10.  The  ultimate  cause  of  the  disintegration  of  cement 
by  alkalis  is  due  to  the  alkalis  forming  compounds  with  the 
elements  of  cement,  which  subsequently  are  removed  from  the 
cement  by  solution. 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali 


Upon  Portland 


Cement  1 


Appendix — ( Continued ) 


110  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


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March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


111 


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CEMENT  AND  SOLUTION  I 12  months  | 24  months  \ 30  months  I 40  months 


112  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


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IIS  II  22 


I 22 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


113 


After  being  in  solution: 

40  months 

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CO 

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Appendix — (Continued). 

12  months 

£ 

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7,837  ! 

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immersion 

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455 

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CM 

ko" 

Appendix — (Continued) . 


114 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


After  being  in  solution: 

40  months 

Tens’n 

lbs. 

750 

715 

780 

748 

O O O 
•O  *0  CM 
CO  Oi  05 

840 

CO  CM  CO 

297 

1 

1 

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o o o 
cm 

ft  C5CO® 

cm~  oo 

10,633 

8,980 

8,540 

10,010 

9,510 

7,720 

5.890 

2.890 

5,500 

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cm  co  -h 

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oo»o^t^ 

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*0  CM  05  CM 

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847 

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11,765 

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Tens’n 

o o o o 

ft  lOO'OtO 

*0 

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0 0*00 
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674 

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lbs. 

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10,450 

8,867 

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6,022 

<=  o o ® 
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1,672 

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immersion 

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^ -<*  co  o so 

636 

0*0*0  0 
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2,528 

CEMENT  AND  SOLUTION 

O-3 
02  2 

s o, 

o ^ 

^ S5 

0 

^3  12? 
_e 

1 3 
6 © 

Average 

Neat  Ideal,  mixed  with  1 per  cent  ammonium 
sulphate.  In  solution  containing  1.66  per 
cent  of  each:  NaCl,  NaaCOs,  NaaSO* 

Average 

*s 

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o 

ftO 

CO^l 

co  cs 
T-i& 

bcv 

’c  ^ 

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aO 
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x c 
co 

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1:3  Ideal,  fn  solution  containing  1.25  per  cent 
of  each:  NaCl,  MgCl2,  Na2S04,  and  MgS04 

Average 

•0^  '^T  I 2 112  11°  1 1 

cl  1 

CEMENT  ANJ)  SOLUTION  j 12  months  j 24  months  30  months  | 40  months 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


115 


Tens’n 

£23 

^oomci 

905 

! Ill 

633 

! Ill 
1 

965 

§1= 

CO 

§ 

lbs. 

11,610 

10,000 

9,760 

10,457 

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8,530 

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9,280 

1 

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2,230 

6,060 

5,200 

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§ 

675 

740 

765 

630 

1 

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867 

555 

500 

575 

250 

470 

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9,740 

9,780 

9,320 

8,220 

9,265 

5,310 

5,190 

2,330 

5,240 

4,517 

8,110 

9,270 

8,000 

8,880 

8,565 

4.010 
3,480 

7.010 
4,150 

501  i 4,662 

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1 

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800 

730 

405 

440 

710 

£ 

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862 

470 

630: 

405 

500 

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10,370 
9,180 
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7,710 

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6,000 

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5,900 

6,640 

7,118 

4.880 
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I f § 


Appendix — ( Continued ) . 


116  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


After  being  in  solution: 

40  months 

Tens’n 

O O O I 

OW’f 

02  ko  *o  *o 

0 1 
s j 

OOO 
CO  ■'T'  < 

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893 

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02  CO  40  40  CO 

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X 

10 

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3,230 
2 300 
2,800 
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2,807 

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te  ^ ^ 
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40 

0*000 

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656 

40  40  40  40 

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ffiCCtON  00  40 

co  cm*  i-T  h cm 

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00  CM  CO 

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5,967 

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CO 

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1:1  Ideal,  mixed  with  solution  containing  1 per 
cent  NaoHPOi  and  1 per  cent  sulphuric 
acid.  Kept  in  solution  No.  13 

Average 

1:1  Ideal,  mixed  with  1 per  cent  sulphuric 
acid.  Kept  in  solution  No.  13 

Average 

•ovj  -q»n  IS  If*  IIS  1 

Appendix — (Continued). 


March,  1917  Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


117 


4 weeks 

Tens’n 

■OOfi 
. 'J*  oo  >o 
oQt-cr.  o 

40 

CM. 

© 

! Comp. 

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7,100 

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•ON  -qui  f 


Average 5,956  910  ! 6,300  847  | 5,656 


Appendix — ( Continued  ) . 


118 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  113 


44 

o> 

Tens’n 

lbs. 

970 

970 

1,060 

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8 

CO 

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a> 

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lbs. 

950 

1,315 

1,120 

1,320 

1,176 

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lbs. 

1,060 

970 

995 

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0 2 
44 
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1 8,390 

7,850 
6,300 
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lbs. 
4,800 
I 4,400 
j 7,320 

5,507 

4) 

< 

OO 

lbs. 

7,970 

6,610 

6,350 

7,130 

7,015 

.S 

w 

5 

HJ 

0) 

o 

Tens’n 

O O to  0 

W(N(N(N(N 

42 

249 

CO 

13 

lbs. 
1,145 
1,090  ! 
1,000 

1,078 

o 

rC 

00 

04 

s 

T3 

Comp. 

lbs. 

5,700 

4,330 

4,080 

4,170 

4,570  ! 

CO 

lbs. 

7.430 

6.430 
6,930 
6,140 

6,732  ! 

40  months 

*0  O O 

wSS8oo 

jO 

752 

OOO 

Tj<  t-H  CM 

^00  CO  00 
^ tCco'cd 

6,900  1 

30  months 

lbs. 

1,085 

1,000 

1,020 

1,035 

OOOO  ' 
NCOdt 
02  O 00  0^0 

42  00  cd  td  co 

7,165 

j 25  months  | 

1 

] 

| lbs. 
8,840 
9,110 
9,680 
5,700 

1 8,332 

21  months 

lbs. 

1,035 

1,000 

1,185 

1,035 

1,064 

lbs. 

9,200 

8,320 

9,300 

8,900 

! O 

OO 

oT 

i 


•ox  -qTH 


o 

:! 


Oj 


< 


I 


O 

be 


I 


o 

O 


< 


1 


Appendix — (Continued). 


119 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


After  being  in  solution: 

40  months 

Tens’n 

lbs. 

1,140 

1,200 

1,185 

1,175 

o»flu: 
QC  CM  CO 
^ ^ 

480 

O M3  O 

CO  CO 

CM  CM  CM 

255 

M3  O O 

ClTf  TJ* 

COON 

OO  i 
2 

Comp. 

lbs. 
8,450 
8,510 
! 6,800 

! 7,920 

4,690 

3,865 

4,180 

1 

CM 

11,790 

9,000 

11,130 

10,640 

6,560 

9,070 

6,520 

S§ 

CO 

24  months  30  months 

1 

o 

o io  o <=> 

OOt^^CO 

1,131 

535 

560 

415 

525 

1 § 
j M3 

M3  O M3  M3 
HOCOCO 
CO  m3  00 

679 

O O M3  M3 
05  1 CC  y-* 

O C5  O O^ 

O 

CM 

Comp. 

oooo 

o 

OQ  OO  M3  05  CO 
ecT  co 

7,325 

OOOO 
M3  O CM  00 

05  O M3  M3 

CO  CO  CM 

4,262 

12,020 

9,770 

11.070 

9,740 

10,650 

8888  j 

<©  00  O 

KdSOOO 

1 

M3 

00' 

0 

CM 

05 

Tens’n 

oooo 

1,105 

I O O O M3 
CO  M3  CO 

TJ«  Tf«  co  ^ 

C5 

CM 

O M3  M3  O 
CO  CC  00 
CO  M3  CO 

667 

oooo 
co  M3  co 

00  05  05  05 

o 

OOOO 
cDiNCOOC 
^ i-i  co  co  o 

£ o'  o'  os  oT 

i 9,880 

4,370 
4,230 
5,880 
8 450 

CM  v 
CO 

8,850 

10,740 

i 11,000 

11,070 

10,165 

11,870 

10,600 

9,270 

8,120 

kO 

CO 

oT 

12  months 

Tens’n 

OiCiftO 
(M  N CO  CO 
^ CO  Cl  CM  CO 

o 

OOOO 

370 

O o M3  M3 
CO  C CO  CM 

r>- n-  oo 

CM 

950 
820 
1 010 
840 

I M3 
8 

i 

lbs. 

12,910 

11,000 

9,010 

8,890 

10,440 

[2288 
1 O O 
| co  Tf  eo  cO 

1 

4 315 

'oooo 

CM  1>-  CTi  *— < 
CM  !>■  03  i-h 

oT  o'  o"  oo' 

CM 

s 

o 1 

f o o O o 

CO  05  CO  CM 
o L-  o 05 

oo  oT  oooo 

l 

Is 

Before 

immersion 

Tens’n 

m3  M3 
. i-t  CO 
If  CO  CO 

340 

I O O M3  M3  M3  1 
CM  CM  CO  CM  1 

CO  CO  CM  CM  CO 

301 

I M3  M3  U3  M3  O 
CC  CM  CM  CO  M3 
CO  CO  ^ Cl  CM 

326 

600 
630 
645 
500  ; 

1 ^ 
, ~ 
M3 

Comp. 

lbs. 

3,830 

4,240 

4,035 

4,050 

2,200 

2,570 

5,130 

3,487 

I o o o o o 

CCNCONCX)  1 
OOfNNO 
co'  r?  m3  m:  j 

5,288 

6,380 
5 670 
6,810 
4,350 

§ 

00 

M3 

CEMENT  AND  SOLUTION 

GO 

o 

V. 

op 

'cz  ® 

^Jz; 

Jz; 

Average 

1:2  Ideal,  Solution  No.  13 

Average 

w .2 

>>2 
^ o 
.ccS  ci 

g cx  ^ 

-*■*  o 

^ . o 

^ to 

or  ai 

Jz; 

Average 

c o 
o 

CO 

L 

M3 

52J 

Average 

"°N  -clBrI  i CO  If  CO  f f CO  Ifco  I 

Appendix — (Continued). 


’ After  being  in  solution: 

Wyot 

J 

O 

s 

o 

ning 

*in 

c 

OJ 

H 

Agricultural 

10*0*0  1 *o  I 

.C0*O(N  1 O 

^ 00  00  1 oo 

Experiment 

O O *0  l *0  1 

5DNX  O 

00  00  0 0 

Station.  B 

SS2 

005  O 

ullf 

0 1 

00 

0 

itin  No. 

OOO 

111 

O 

L— 

Comp. 

lbs. 

11,010 

9,790 

11,030 

10,607 

10,640 
10  390 
12,140 

11,057 

10,880  J 
8,160 
11,020  ; 

10,020 

OOO 
00  r-H 
CqNrH 

0500" 

O 

O 

30  months 

Tens’n 

*c  o o o 

NOOh 

^r-aioooo 

& 

’ 

821  : 

1,040 

1,000 

1,000 

915 

989 

*0  *0  *0  *0 

O O CO 
0*ON*0 

720 

OOOO 
O O cO  O 
r>-  r>-  00 

O 

O 

00 

Comp. 

o o o o 
00*0  0 00 
^ ©n  o cq 

r-T  C^f  y-4  of 

12,100 

11,300 
9,230 
10,080 
! 10,380 

10.247 

OOOO 

t-h  t-H  O O 
^(NCOO 

i-T  o'"  oT 

OO 

o' 

OOOO 

^NO^ji 
1-1  CO  CO  ^ 

0 o~  cT  0 

CO 

0 i 

24  months 

Tens’n 

0 0*00 
CON^O 
WNXC0  05 

O 1 

CO 

00 

O *0  O O 
*Oth(N*C 
0005C5 

O 

O 

*o  *0  0 0 

^ 00  CO 

00  00  O r^ 

CO 

00 

*0  *0  *0  0 
OO  *0  *C 

00  00 0 

0 

*0 

00 

o 

O 

o o o o 
00  0 00*0 

pQ  O O O r-< 

10,567 

10,400 
11,130 
11,070 
! 9,100 

10,425 

OOOO 
COONN 
l>^cO  co^ 
0 O*'  CO  0" 

* 11,330 

9,950 

10,600 

7,590 

9,340 

0 

£ 

12  months 

*GQ 

s 

o o o o 

cq  CO 

^ »0  lO  Tf 

.Q 

*0 

O O O *0 

cc  co  00 

OXXN 

859 

*0000 
*0  0 

OOTf*0 

581 

*C  O O *0  1 
1-H  *0  I 

NNXC5 

So 

• 

o 

O 

[ o o o o 

1 »o  *o  *o 

j ^ooooo 
£0^00 

10.240 

10,310 
5 000 
7,000 
8,900 

O ! 

00  j 

12,4G0 

14,030 

11,160 

12,410 

l . 

1 12,570 

IOOOO 
1 NXr'^ 

00  'Tt*  0 
cfoo~oo'oT 
1 . 

0 

*0 

0 

00" 

Before 

immersion 

Tens’n 

0 0*000  1 
OO  CO  rH  CO  1 

^ co  co  ^ ^ co  ' 

pO 

387  1 

1 O *C  *C  O O 
(NXOOOX 
Tf<  CO  CO  ^ ^ 

426 

I O *0  O *0  *0  O O 
(NN^(N05*0(N 
CO  rH  (N  N (N  W CO 

261 

1 >0  0 0 0 
(NOOOW 

10  *0  ec 

471  1 

Comp . 

o o o o o 

^ (N  Cl  Cl  C 

w»Ok*0^(N  W(N  1 

^ ^ *o  *o  tjT  ! 

Is 

r 

1 00000 

OJNCO^CI 

qNn 

ccf  c^T  ccq'  co'  *0 

3,256 

OOOOO 

lOOOCOX^ 
CO  00  t>-  l>-  0 

00"  co  <0  o'  i>T 

7,162 

OOOO 

0 0 0 *0 

CO  CO  00 

^ co~  r*  co 

IS 

r 

. 

CEMENT  AND  SOLUTION 

Neat  Ideal,  in  distilled  water,  titrated  daily 
with  H2SO4  to  slightly  acid  reaction.  Wa- 
ter changed  after  every  test  for  strength 

Average 

1:1  Iron  ore  cement,  Solution  No.  13 

Average 

Neat  Ideal,  Solution  No.  14,  titrated  with 
H0SO4  once  a week  to  acid  reaction 

Average 

1:1  Apple  cement,  Solution  No.  13 

Average 

‘qei  } n 1 i ' § 1 1 ^ 1 1 5 1 

Appendix — (Continued). 


March,  1917 


Effect  of  Alkali  Upon  Portland  Cement 


121 


After  being  in  solution: 

40  months 

Tens’n 

o o o 
aJoc  <r>r- 

740 

o»o»o 

owe 

CDNN 

' O 
TT 

cm  co 
oc  oo  oo 

843 

970 

1,080 

935 

995 

Comp. 

! lbs. 

! 9,350 

i 8,610 
1 11,020 

O 

CD 

CD 

of 

o o o 
xoci 
OO  O CD 
oo  of  ocf 

co 

oc 

oo" 

O O C- 
CO  N-  CM 

WO  W0  oo 

O «Tof 

co 

N 

05 

00 

9,390 
8 900 
9,87P 

9,387 

X 

O 

co 

J Tens’n 

WXihO 

O0  oo  05  00 

O 

CD 

oo 

wo  o o o 
cq  x o 
n-  n.  n. 

CO 

iC 

o o o o 
50  — os  t'- 

OC  00  05  00 

882 

wo  O O O 
CO  CM  1— < 0C 
C5  05  o oo 

co 

05 

. 

o o o o 

CDCCNN 
y]OOWN 
^ y-Z  OO  OO  of 

00 

Cl 

of 

12,700 

9,280 

10,690 

8,260 

i 10,232 

; o o o o 

CO  tJ*  CO  co 

o»ox»o 
00  of  oo o 

9,480 

o o o <o> 

CM  ^ t}«  N- 
05  cm"  o o 

10,717 

24  months 

; 

ooo*o 

ihiONOO 

“ 05  *7 

804 

ON  -n*  X | 
N-  N-  N-  N- 

m 

O wo  O O 

CCCCOO 

c.cixc 

916 

W0  W0  O G5 
CO  co  W0  o 
05  o oo  o> 

[ o 
I co 

05 

% 

O O O O 
OC4C.C5 
^ WO  r-  00 

pQ  o’  of  o oo 

9,885 

7,420 
9,000 
8 310 
9,160 

ZiV  8 

7 020 
10  040 
9 400 
7,320 

8,445 

o o o o 

T »0  »ON 

n.  <o>  co 
ocf  of  o o 

[ CM 
W0 
05 

of 

1 

12  months 

72 

»COO»C 

902 

‘OiCiOC 
ONCO^ 
O o lO  o 

»oc  O o 
^ o;  oc  co 
X XX  X 

CO 

oo 

’ wo  O wo  »c 

OC  CM  N T-H 
00  C5  00  OO 

oo 

lbs. 

i 10  460 
11  360 
1 9,920 

10  390 

10,522 

i o o o o | 
1 'TT  05  CO  Op 
TfJOXC 
occfr^ 

oo  1 
o 

of  1 

; I 

r o o o c? 

N»C»CN 
0^00  00  CO 

1 ofoot^foo" 

8,760 

f Cl  O O G? 
Oi  CM 

CO  CO  ^ CM^ 
oo"  05  C5  of 

[ ^ 
of 

O .2 
O U 

£ E 

Tens’n 

OCOtOWJ 
a M M CQ  (N  W 

276 

OIOOO  | 
W0  W0  CM  ^ 

ro 

CO  OC'  OC  CM 
CO  wo  wo  wo  CO 

■ 

1 co  1 
oo 

1 

1 

1 O W0  O O W* 

TPOCONCO 
wo  wo  wo  wo 

l 

CM 
1 CM 
WO 

Comp. 

O O O O O 
.XONCIO 
x (N^IONC 
pCtDN»0»OtO 

CO 

5,970 

7,550 

7,100 

5,210 

5 

oooooo 

1 o ^ N »o  x CD 
1 O CM  CO  CO  OC 

co"  wo  V rtf  wf  tt 

1,505 

4,400 
4,130  | 
3 200 
3,880 
3 780 
4,800 

1 CM 

Is 

r 

Appendix — (Continued). 


122  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Bulletin  No.  113 


After  being  in  solution: 

40  months 

Tens’n 

0 o o 

1 - cq  a* 

O 

-O' 

O O O 

So § oo 

910 

1 

1 

Comp. 

lbs. 

7,490 

7,650 

6,600 

7,247 

o o o 

05  lO  *-» 

oco 
oo  oTv-T 

9,717 

j 30  months 

Tens’n 

® 

ON-f  N 

„;o>t-aooo 

X5 

852 

OOiOO 
00  05  00  05 

872 

kO  0 0 O 

00  O 05  ko 
05  05  05  00 

CO 

05 

Comp. 

o o o o 

03  03  O* 

pQON^OOO 

7,125 

o © o o 

CO^N05^(N 

os"  00  r-T  cT 

! 10,157 

OOOO 

rt<  co  co 

oointh 
00  CO  O0~  O 

j 8,350  | 

24  months 

Tens’n 

o o o o 

C©  h O CO 
^OOOSOSOO 
po 

875 

| o o o o 

^GOHrf 
05  05  O 05 

967 

1,005 

985 

1,035 

1,060 

1,021 

£ 

o 

o o o o 

y*  05  CO  ^ 

pQ  co"  oT  ocT  ccT 

7,935 

o o o o 
oo  ^ oo  05 

C3  »O  C3  U- 

o oo"  o'  05" 

9,722 

OOOO 
00  y*  C^3  O 
05  05^  k©  CO 

00'  00  i-T 

10,192 

03 

Tens’n 

lO  o o o 

OC  CO  Tf« 

pO 

766 

0 0 0 
00  0 CO  00 
00  00  05  00 

874 

0 0 ^ 0 

05  kO  kO  05 
O ©5  05  05 

CO 

05 

05 

03 

ft 

o 

O 

1 o o o o 

co  »o  c©  o 

03 

pO  ecT  uo'  no  CO* 

5,955 

0000 

05  ^ 00  ^ 

oTo  00  oT 

| 9,362 

OOOO 

CO  (M  03  O 

00"  t>T  00 

00 

§ 

00 

! 

Before 

immersion 

Tens’n 

OOW3W5 
CO  CO  03  CO 
40  *0  »0  kO 

pO 

552 

| kO  0 0 0 

NOOOCOkO 
Tf  kO  Tf<  kO  kO 

488 

kO  kO  0 0 0 
CO  CO  00  T*  T* 

CO  co  co  co  co 

kO 

CO 

ft 

S 

o 

O 

oooooo 
. Tt<  Tf  oo  t'- 

co 

^ CO  TjT  Iff  CO  kO  co 

4,095 

4,120 

4,100 

3,920 

3,000 

3,476 

kO  0 0 0 0 
COOOCO  kOkO 
CO^OOOkO 

co"  co  ci  co 

kO 

co 

co" 

CEMENT  AND  SOLUTION 

1:1  Alkali-proof  cement,  30  days  in  water,  So- 
lution No.  13 

Average 

1:1  Ideal,  for  mixing  1 per  cent  sulphuric  acid 
used;  after  that,  7 days  in  water;  Solu- 
tion No.  13 

Average 

Neat  Alkali-proof  cement,  Solution  No.  2 

Average 

■ON  1 S IIS  1131 

Twenty- Sixth  Annual  Report 


OF  THE 

University  of  Wyoming 

Agricultural  Experiment 
Station 


1915-1916 


LARAMIE,  WYOMING 
U.  S.  A. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

LARAMIE 

BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 
Officers 


TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B . President 

MARY  B.  DAVID Vice  President 

C.  D.  SPALDING Treasurer 

FRANK  SUMNER  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 


Executive  Committee 

A.  B.  HAMILTON  T.  F.  BURKE  ♦ W.  S.  INGHAM 

Term 

Appointed  Members  Expires 

1911 HON.  ALEXANDER  B.  HAMILTON,  M.  D 1917 

1911 HON.  LYMAN  H.  BROOKS 1917 

1913 HON.  CHARLES  S.  BEACH,  B.  S 1917 

1895 HON.  TIMOTHY  F.  BURKE,  LL.  B 1919 

1913  HON.  MARY  B.  DAVID 1919 

1914  HON.  MARY  N.  BROOKS 1919 

1911 HON.  W.  S.  INGHAM,  B.  A 1921 

1913 HON.  C.  D.  SPALDING 1921 

1915  HON.  J.  M.  CAREY,  LL.  B 1921 

EDITH  K.  O.  CLARK,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion   Ex  Officio 

PRESIDENT  C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D Ex  Officio 


STATION  COUNCIL 

C.  A.  DUNIWAY,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D President  and  Acting-  Director 

*HENRY  G.  KNIGHT,  A.  M Director  and  Agricultural  Chemist 

F.  S.  BURRAGE,  B.  A Secretary 

C.  D.  MOIR Clerk 

A.  NELSON,  Ph.  D Botanist  and  Horticulturist 

F.  E.  HEPNER,  M.  S Research  Chemist 

J.  A.  HILL,  B.  S Wool  Specialist 

J.  C.  FITTERER,  M.  S.,  C.  E Irrigation  Engineer 

A.  D.  FAVILLE,  M.  S Animal  Husbandman 

T.  S.  PARSONS,  M.  S Agronomist 

S.  K.  LOY,  Ph.  D Research  Chemist 

KARL  T.  STEIK,  M.  A Engineering  Chemist 

J W.  SCOTT,  Ph.  D Parasitologist 

O.  A.  BEATH,  M.  A Research  Chemist 

P.  T.  MEYERS.  B.  S.  A Assistant  Agronomist 

tj.  I.  KIRKPATRICK,  D.  V.  M Veterinarian 

E.  H.  LEHNERT,  D.  V.  S Veterinarian-elect 


^Absent  on  leave,  1915-16. 
tAppointment  for  1915-16  only. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 
University  of  Wyoming. 

To  the  Board  of  Trustees , 

The  University  of  Wyoming. 

Sirs: — In  accordance  with  the  act  of  Congress  approved 
March  2,  1887,  establishing  and  regulating  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations,  and  the  act  of  Congress  approved  March  16, 
1906,  known  as  the  “Adams  Act”,  I have  the  honor  to  submit 
herewith  the  Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of  Wyoming,  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1916. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

C.  A.  Duniway, 

Acting  Director. 

University  of  Wyoming, 

Laramie,  Wyoming, 

August  31,  1916. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING, 

Office  of  the  Board  of  Trustees, 

Laramie. 

T 0 His  Excellency, 

Governor  John  B.  Kendrick, 

Cheyenne,  Wyoming. 

Sir: — In  accordance  with  Chapter  51,  Section  1,  of  the 
Session  Laws  of  1899,  as  President  of  the  Board  of  Trustees 
of  the  University  of  Wyoming,  I hereby  submit  to  you  that 
portion  of  the  report  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  which  refers 
to  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  and  other  members  of  the  Station  Council,  for 
the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1916. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

Timothy  F.  Burke, 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trustees. 
Laramie,  Wyoming, 

August  31,  1916. 


Report  of  Acting  Director 


The  granting  of  a sabbatical  leave  of  absence  to  Director 
H.  G.  Knight  for  the  academic  year  1915-16  led  to  the  desig- 
nation of  the  President  of  the  University  as  Acting  Director. 
It  is  in  this  capacity  that  a brief  formal  report  is  submitted  by 
the  undersigned  in  accordance  with  law. 

Under  the  circumstances  there  has  been  no  effort  during 
the  year  to  inaugurate  new  policies  or  to  initiate  new  lines  of 
investigation.  The  several  departments  have  continued  re- 
searches on  plans  heretofore  adopted,  but  with  greater  effect- 
iveness than  during  the  preceding  year  because  of  full  use  of 
improved  facilities  in  the  new  laboratories  of  Agricultural  Hall. 

The  reports  which  follow  give  in  summary  form  the  re- 
sults which  have  been  obtained.  Reference  to  these  statements 
will  give  a sufficient  indication  of  the  progressive  conditions 
characteristic  of  the  Station. 

ORGANIZATION  AND  STAFF. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  University  of 
Wyoming  is  organized  as  follows,  with  the  staff  who  have 
served  during  the  past  year : 

Administration.— Acting  Director,  C.  A.  Duniway;  Secre- 
tary, F.  S.  Burrage;  Clerk,  C.  D.  Moir. 

Agronomy. — T.  S.  Parsons  and  P.  T.  Meyers. 

Animal  Husbandry. — A.  D.  Faville. 

Botany  and  Horticulture. — Aven  Nelson. 

Chemistry — S.  K.  Loy,  F.  E.  Hepner,  O.  A.  Beath. 

Engineering  Chemistry. — Karl  T.  Steik. 

Irrigation  Engineering — J.  C.  Fitterer. 

Parasitology. — J.  W.  Scott. 

Veterinary. — J.  I.  Kirkpatrick. 

Wool.—].  A.  Hill. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


65 


PUBLICATIONS. 

Owing  to  limitation  of  funds,  the  Station  has  issued  only 
those  publications  required  for  its  operation.  The  Wyo- 
ming Farm  Bulletin  has  been  made  the  organ  of  the  Extension 
Division  of  the  Agricultural  College,  but  members  of  the  Sta- 
tion contribute  to  it  appropriate  popular  articles. 

ANNUAL  REPORT. 

Early  in  the  year  the  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Director  was  compiled  and  published.  Besides  the  usual  gen- 
eral review  and  the  departmental  summaries,  it  contained  spe- 
cial articles  by  John  W.  Scott  on  “ A Progress  Report  on 
Sarcocystis  Tenella”,  by  A.  D.  Faville  .on  “Branding  Paints”, 
and  by  O.  L.  Prien  on  “Tuberculosis  and  Its  Rapid  Trans- 
mission”. 

bulletins. 

The  following  Bulletins  have  been  issued  and  distributed 
during  the  year : 

Bulletin  No.  106,  on 

I.  Cottonseed  Cake  vs.  Cold  Pressed  Cottonseed 
Cake  for  Beef  Cows. 

II.  Mixed  Grains  vs.  Cottonseed  Cake  for  Growing 
Beef  Cattle. 

conclusions. 

In  rations  for  beef  cows  two  and  four-tenths 
pounds  of  cottonseed  cake  when  fed  with  native 
hay  proved  practically  equal  in  feeding  value  to 
three  pounds  of  cold-pressed  cake. 

In  growing  rations  for  beef  heifers  a ration  of 
four  pounds  of  a mixture  of  equal  parts  of  corn 
meal  and  mill  run  bran  gave  better  gains  than  did 
two  pounds  of  cottonseed  cake. 

Under  certain  conditions  the  ration  in  which 
the  grain  mixture  was  used  made  the  cheaper 
gains ; under  other  conditions  the  cottonseed  ra- 
tion was  more  economical. 


66 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Bulletin  No.  ioy,  on  “Swine  Feeding” : 

I.  (a)  Pea  Pasture  for  Fattening  Pigs. 

(b)  Hurdling  Pea  Pasture  for  Pigs. 

II.  (a)  Alfalfa  Tea  for  Growing  Pigs. 

(b)  Corn  Meal  vs.  Barley  Meal  for  Fattening 
Pigs. 

III.  (a)  Pea  Hay  vs.  Alfalfa  Hay  for  Brood  Sows, 
(b)  Alfalfa  Meal  in  Fattening  Rations  for  Sows. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Pea  pasture  gave  good  returns  in  fattening  ra- 
tions. 

Hurdling  pea  pasture  effected  a large  saving  of 
peas. 

Pigs  that  had  been  on  pasture  previously  made 
better  gains  when  put  on  dry  feed  than  did  pigs 
that  had  no  pasture. 

Returns  from  an  acre  of  pea  pasture  were 
good. 

Cross-bred  and  pure-bred  pigs  made  practically 
the  same  gains. 

Alfalfa  tea  added  to  a ration  increased  gains, 
though  it  did  not  appear  to  be  of  much  value. 

Barley  meal  proved  equal  to  corn  meal  for 
young  fattening  pigs. 

Alfalfa  hay  gave  better  returns  in  maintenance 
rations  for  brood  sows  than  did  pea  hay. 

A mixture  consisting  of  four  parts  corn  meal 
and  one  part  alfalfa  meal  proved  less  satisfac- 
tory as  a fattening  ration  for  brood  sows  than  did 
corn  meal  alone. 

Bulletin  No.  10S,  on  “Cattle  Feeding” : 

I.  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  in  Maintenance  Rations  for 
Steers. 

Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Beef  Cows. 

Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Growing  Cattle. 


II. 

III. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report.  67 

DIGEST. 

In  rations  for  steers  oat  and  pea  silage,  when 
fed  with  native  hay,  produced  much  heavier  and 
cheaper  gains  than  did  native  hay  alone. 

Twenty-eight  pounds  of  silage  was  much  more 
valuable  than  ten  pounds  of  native  hay  in  steer 
rations. 

Oat  and  pea  silage  used  with  alfalfa  hay  made 
a very  satisfactory  ration  for  breeding  cows  of 
the  beef  breeds. 

Silage  added  to  a ration  of  grain  and  alfalfa 
for  growing  beef  stock  gave  cheaper  gains  than 
did  a grain  and  alfalfa  ration. 

Silage  gave  remarkably  good  returns  when  fed 
with  alfalfa  in  rations  for  young  cattle. 

Bulletin  No.  109 , on  “Sheep  Feeding” : 

I.  (a)  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Fattening  Lambs. 

(b)  Corn  vs.  Barley  for  Fattening  Lambs. 

II.  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Breeding  Ewes. 

III.  Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Ram  Lambs. 

DIGEST. 

The  heaviest  gains  made  by  fattening  lambs 
were  on  a ration  of  corn  and  alfalfa. 

Valuing  alfalfa  at  $12.00  and  silage  at  $4.00 
per  ton,  a ration  in  which  silage  was  used  made 
as  cheap  gains  in  fattening  lambs  as  did  the  corn 
and  alfalfa  ration. 

Alfalfa  and  silage  without  grain  did  not  prove 
to  be  a satisfactory  fattening  ration  for  lambs. 

When  barley  replaced  corn  in  a fattening  ra- 
tion gains  were  somewhat  lower. 

Oat  and  pea  silage  may  be  used  satisfactorily 
in  rations  for  breeding  ewes. 

In  growing  rations  for  ram  lambs  oats  and  pea 
silage  may  be  used  to  replace  part  of  the  alfalfa. 


68 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


general  activities. 

The  Station  exists  primarily  for  research,  for  the  discov- 
ery of  scientific  truths  of  value  to  any  form  of  agricultural 
industry.  Its  staff,  laboratories,  equipment,  library,  farms, 
herds,  and  flocks  are  maintained  for  these  purposes.  Its  work, 
however,  is  closely  associated  with  the  conditions  under  which 
agricultural  industries  are  actually  conducted  in  Wyoming. 
The  members  of  the  Staff  give  their  services  in  generous 
measure  to  stockmen,  ranchers  and  farmers  for  the  solution 
of  their  practical  problems.  Hundreds  of  inquiries  are  an- 
swered by  correspondence  every  month.  Bulletins  are  dis- 
tributed widely  to  all  who  wish  them.  Institutes  and  Short 
Courses  receive  all  the  aid  and  time  that  due  regard  for  re- 
search permits.  Kept  within  proper  limits,  these  activities 
help  investigators  by  relating  their  work  to  realities.  In  Wyo- 
ming even  the  rapid  growth  of  the  Extension  Division  of  the 
College  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  demands  which  press  upon 
the  institution  for  field  instruction  and  demonstration.  The 
results  of  scientific  experimentation  are  no  longer  slighted,  but 
are  being  welcomed  and  even  eagerly  sought. 

STATION  NEEDS. 

This  topic  can  be  only  imperfectly  discussed,  being  re- 
stricted to  suggestions  capable  of  immediate  realization,  and 
not  extended  to  far-reaching  plans  for  the  perfection  of  Sta- 
tion service. 

Certain  laboratories  in  Agricultural  Hall  have  not  yet  been 
equipped.  It  is  expected  that  appropriations  will  be  available 
during  the  coming  year  to  make  most  of  these  improvements. 

Substantial  additions  to  breeding  herds  and  flocks  on  the 
Stock.  Farm  are  urgently  needed.  If  possible,  several  thou- 
sand dollars  should  be  appropriated  at  once  for  purchases, 
chiefly  of  sires.  At  the  same  time,  new  sheds  and  improved 
feed  yards  ought  to  be  provided. 

Agronomy  experiments  require  a substantial  greenhouse, 
the  cost  of  which  ought  to  be  covered  in  next  year’s  budget. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


69 


Several  sub-stations  for  combined  experimental  and  dem- 
onstration work,  both  in  Agronomy  and  Animal  Husbandry, 
ought  to  be  provided  in  different  sections  of  the  state.  Federal 
regulations  forbid  the  use  of  Hatch  and  Adams  Funds  for  sub- 
stations, so  that  the  new  work  would  have  to  be  supported  by 
state  funds.  The  several  farms  now  maintained  under  the 
direction  of  the  State  Farm  Board  could  be  admirably  adapted 
for  these  purposes  if  they  were  administered  through  the  Agri- 
cultural College,  the  Extension  Division  and  the  Experiment 
Station.  The  value  of  the  scientific  work  at  the  main  Station 
would  be  increased  many  times  if  the  use  of  sub-stations  under 
a single  management  facilitated  comparative  experiments  on  a 
large  scale  and  furnished  the  means  for  practical  demonstra- 
tions. 

In  some  departments  of  the  Station,  more  particularly  in 
Parasitology  and  Wool,  more  highly  trained  assistants  are 
needed  than  can  now  be  found  among  our  College  students. 
During  the  coming  year,  it  is  hoped  that  such  assistants  may 
be  employed. 

As  always,  and  in  common  with  all  departments  of  the 
University,  the  Station  faces  the  problem  of  advancing  salaries 
on  some  reasonable  basis.  The  subject  needs  considerate  at- 
tention and  action  as  prompt  as  possible. 

C.  A.  Duniway, 

Acting  Director. 


7° 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Financial  Statement  of  the  Treasurer 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

IN  ACCOUNT  WITH 

THE  UNITED  STATES  APPROPRIATION,  1915-1916 

DR. 

To  receipts  from  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States,  as  per 
appropriations  for  fiscal  year  ended  June  30th,  1916,  under 
acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2nd,  1887,  and  March 
16th,  1906: 

Hatch  Fund $15,000.00 

Adams  Fund *. 15,000.00 


CR. 

Hatch  Adams 


By  Salaries $ 7,770.15  $ 9,297.64 

Labor 2,752.13  662.75 

Publications 1,220.94  

Postage  and  Stationery 58.07  

Freight  and  Express '. . 21.70  91.00 

Heat,  Light,  Water  and  Power. . . . 257.05  51.24 

Chemicals  and  Laboratory  Supplies  69.14  847.16 

Seeds,  Plants  and  Sundry  Supplies  271.25  46.51 

Fertilizers 100.00  

Feeding  Stuffs 1,578.80  1,232.51 

Library 22.92  81.27 

Tools,  Machinery  and  Appliances.  . 319.31  161.38 

Furniture  and  Fixtures 32.50  

Scientific  Apparatus  and  Specimens  126.04  1,343.23 

Livestock 400.00  316.00 

Traveling  Expenses 117.31 

Buildings  and  Land 752.00 

Contingent  Expenses 


$15,000.00  $15,000.00  $30,000.00 

We,  the  undersigned,  do  hereby  certify  that  we  have  ex- 
amined the  books  and  accounts  of  the  University  of  Wyoming 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1916;  that  we  have  found  the  same  well  kept  and 
classified  as  above,  and  that  the  receipts  for  the  year  from  the 
Treasurer  of  the  United  States  are  shown  to  have  been  $30,000 
and  the  disbursements  in  the  Hatch  Fund  $15,000,  and  in  the 


Twenty -Sixth  Annual  Report. 


7 1 


Adams  Fund  $15,000,  for  all  of  which  proper  vouchers  are  on 
file  and  have  been  by  us  examined  and  found  correct. 

And  we  further  certify  that  the  expenditures  have  been 
solely  for  the  purpose  set  forth  in  the  act  of  Congress  ap- 
proved March  2,  1887,  and  the  act  of  Congress  approved 
March  16,  1906.  (Signed)  A.  B.  Hamilton, 

Attest:  W.  S.  Ingham. 

Frank  Sumner  Burrage, 

Custodian  of  Seal. 


(seal) 


72 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Report  of  the  Agronomist 


BY  T.  S.  PARSONS. 


Weather  conditions  for  the  season  of  1915  were  on  the 
whole  rather  unfavorable  to  crops  in  this  locality.  There  was 
a considerable  growth  of  forage,  but  owing  to  cold,  wet  season, 
grains  were  slow  in  maturing  and  the  yields  were  much  lighter 
than  in  1914.  The  second  crop  of  alfalfa  came  on  well  and 
grasses  made  good  growth.  Weather  observations  for  the 
months  of  July,  August,  and  September  show  peculiar  condi- 
tions. The  month  of  July,  when  the  most  rapid  growth  of 
crops  is  expected  to  begin  at  this  altitude,  was  unusually  cold 
and  wet.  Frequent  hail  storms  occurred  in  the  vicinity,  doing 
considerable  damage,  but  the  Agronomy  Farm  fortunately 
escaped  these  storms.  August  continued  cold  and  wet,  pre- 
venting the  maturing  of  grains.  The  same  conditions  main- 
tained through  most  of  the  month  of  September.  On  account 
of  the  excessive  rainfall,  several  acres  of  oat  ground  became 
so  soft  that  it  was  impossible  to  cut  the  grain.  The  weather 
conditions  through  October  and  November  became  more  nearly 
normal,  so  that  it  was  possible  to  finish  up  the  threshing  and 
other  fall  work  in  good  shape.  The  ground  was  in  good  shape 
for  plowing  and  most  of  the  farm  was  fall  plowed. 

WEATHER  CONDITIONS  1916. 

The  winter  of  191 5-1916  was  about  an  average  one.  There 
was  not  a great  deal  of  snow,  but  considerable  cold  weather. 
There  was  no  winter  killing  of  alfalfa  or  fall  grains.  Spring 
work  began  about  March  25.  The  season  up  to  July  1st  was 
very  unfavorable  for  crop  growth,  being  dry  and  cold,  quite 
severe  frosts  prevailing  up  to  the  latter  part  of  June.  A pecu- 
liar thing  was  noticeable,  however,  while  frosts  were  frequent 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report . 


73 


and  at  times  quite  severe,  but  little  harm  was  done  to  the  crops 
directly  by  the  frosts,  their  effect  being  much  less  severe  on 
account  of  the  dry  season.  The  effect  of  the  cold  weather 
seemed  to  be  to  hold  the  grain  crops  back,  causing  them  to  head 
out  very  short.  The  grain  crops  showed  very  little  growth  up 
to  July  i. 

While  the  first  crop  of  alfalfa  was  severely  injured  by 
frosts  in  1915,  an  abnormally  wet  season,  there  was  very  little 
or  no  effect  of  the  frost  in  the  first  crop  this  year  on  account 
of  the  dry  weather. 


ALFALFA. 

About  one-half  of  the  alfalfa  seeding  in  1915  came  out 
well  and  produced  a good  crop  this  year.  The  balance  was  in 
low  grounds  and  on  account  of  the  wet  season  killed  out.  The 
seeding  was  done  with  a broadcast  seeder  and  with  a drill,  with 
a nurse  crop  and  without.  There  seems  to  be  no  difference  in 
the  stands  obtained  by  the  different  methods  of  seeding  or 
whether  a nurse  crop  was  used  or  not.  The  main  factors  of 
success  seem  to  be  in  the  selection  of  good  seed  and  the  proper 
preparation  of  the  soil.  About  the  middle  of  May  seems  to  be 
a good  time  to  sow  alfalfa.  Six  acres  of  new  alfalfa  were 
sown  in  May,  1916.  This  is  an  excellent  stand  at  this  date 
(June  30).  Two  hundred  and  fifty  acres  were  sown  this  year 
on  land  near  the  Agronomy  Farm,  as  were  several  smaller 
areas  in  the  Faramie  Valley  under  the  direction  of  the  Agron- 
omist. All  appear  to  be  successful. 

Some  of  the  older  variety  plots  of  alfalfa  had  been  badly 
killed  out,  so  they  were  plowed  up  and  prepared  for  reseeding. 
The  Baltic,  Liscomb,  and  some  other  varieties  will  be  tried. 
The  Grimm  variety  still  remains  the  best  of  all  the  varieties 
grown  at  the  Station.  Special  attention  is  being  given  to  the 
production  of  alfalfa  seed  this  year.  A bulletin  embodying  the 
results  of  five  years’  work  with  alfalfa  has  been  prepared  and 
is  now  ready  for  the  press. 


74 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


SMALL  GRAINS. 

The  small  grain  projects,  early  and  late  seeding  and  rate  of 
seeding  were  held  in  abeyance  this  year  in  order  to  clean  up  the 
plots.  These  plots  on  which  grains  have  been  grown  for  five 
6r  six  years  in  succession  had  become  very  foul,  containing  a 
great  many  weeds  and  much  volunteer  grain.  They  were, 
therefore,  plowed  in  the  fall  of  1915  and  disked  and  harrowed 
at  intervals  through  the  season  of  1916,  and  will  be  plowed 
again  this  fall. 

One  year’s  experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  there  is  noth- 
ing gained  by  seeding  too  early.  By  seeding  later  there  is  more 
time  to  clean  the  land  of  volunteer  stuff  and  weeds  by  culti- 
vation, while  germination  and  growth  start  more  quickly  in 
the  later  sowing.  Where  there  was  a month  interval  between 
times  of  sowing  there  was  only  a week’s  difference*  in  the  time 
of  harvest.  These  projects  will  be  taken  up  again  in  the  spring 
of  1917.  A bulletin  on  small  grains  embodying  five  years’ 
experiments  is  now  in  process  of  preparation. 

POTATOES. 

The  potato  project  was  continued  in  1916,  as  the  unfav- 
orable season  of  1915  gave  but  poor  results  as  to  yields.  No 
blight  appeared  in  the  vines  in  1915,  but  the  cold,  wet  season 
did  not  permit  a healthy  growth  of  vines  and  yields  were  light. 
The  latter  half  of  May  seems  to  be  the  proper  time  for  planting 
at  this  altitude.  The  Red  McClure  variety  was  selected  for 
this  year’s  work  and  promises  better  yields  at  this  date  (June 
30)  than  any  variety  grown  at  the  Station  the  past  seven  years. 

FORAGE  CROPS. 

The  forage  crops,  such  as  peas  and  oats  and  barley  and 
oats,  were  grown  for  ensilage.  No  special  experiments  are  be- 
ing conducted  along  this  line  at  present  except  as  to  the  use  of 
these  crops  in  the  rotation  project. 

The  pasture  and  meadow  grass  project  has  been  completed 
and  a bulletin  on  the  subject  is  being  prepared.  The  sweet 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


75 


clover  project  was  completed  in  the  fall  of  1915  and  a bulletin 
is  now  ready  for  publication. 

FERTILIZERS. 

The  commercial  fertilizer  project  has  been  completed  and 
results  can  be  published  as  soon  as  soil  analyses  are  made. 

The  usual  application  of  five  tons  per  acre  of  barnyard  ma- 
nure was  made  during  the  winter.  While  this  manure  has 
greatly  increased  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  improved  its 
physical  texture,  it  has,  at  the  same  time,  brought  in  a large 
amount  of  weed  seed.  It  is  thought  best  at  the  present  time  to 
omit  the  application  of  manure  for  one  or  two  years,  in  order 
that  the  weeds  may  be  brought  under  control. 

CROP  ROTATIONS. 

The  crop  rotation  project  was  continued  this  year.  This 
is  the  second  year’s  work.  No  results  can  yet  be  determined, 
as  the  work  must  be  continued  for  a period  of  at  least  five 
years. 

IMPROVEMENTS. 

The  sum  of  $300  was  allowed  for  repairs  and  improve- 
ments at  the  Agronomy  Farm  in  1915-1916.  This  was  used  in 
the  building  of  a forge  for  blacksmith  work,  the  purchase  of 
tools,  the  building  of  a concrete  runway  through  the  machin- 
ery barn,  the  digging  of  a well,  fencing,  and  other  repairs. 
About  fifty  trees  were  set  out  this  year  to  replace  those  which 
were  killed  out  last  year.  There  is  now  a good  well  of  drink- 
ing water  with  a pump  at  the  house.  As  soon  as  funds  are 
available  the  well  will  be  cased  up  with  tile  and  a pump  and 
sink  placed  in  the  kitchen. 

The  fence  on  the  west  side  of  the  farm  has  been  placed 
over  on  the  surveyed  line.  This  gives  several  acres  of  new 
land  that  can  be  broken  up. 

A team  of  mares  was  purchased  last  July  for  use  on  the 
farm. 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


76 


NEW  MACHINERY. 

New  machinery  has  been  added  to  the  farm  equipment  as 
the  old  was  worn  out.  During  the  year  a sulky  plow,  a hay 
press,  a hay  rake,  and  a grain  binder  have  been  purchased. 
The  press  enables  a great  saving  to  be  made  in  the  threshed 
straw,  as  this  baled  straw  finds  ready  sale  in  the  market. 

SEED  DISTRIBUTION. 

But  few  seeds  were  distributed  to  farmers  in  the  spring 
of  1916,  as  the  Agronomist  desired  to  get  complete  returns 
as  possible  from  the  1915  distribution.  Of  the  41  persons  who 
received  oats,  wheat,  and  barley  for  trial  in  1915,  a large  ma- 
jority reported.  In  most  instances  they  were  well  pleased 
with  the  grains  sent  and  many  reported  that  they  had  sufficient 
seed  to  plant  their  entire  acreage  this  year.  The  table  is  for 
those  reporting  on  the  distribution : 


GRAIN  DISTRIBUTION  BY  COUNTIES. 


COUNTY 

Wheat 
No.  Coop. 

Oats 

No.  Coop. 

Barley 
No.  Coop. 

Albany  

5 

5 

4 

J3icr  Horn  

1 

Carbon  

1 

1 

1 

Crook  

1 

1 

Fremont 

9 

8 

8 

Goshen 

1 

1 

3 



1 

1 

Lincoln  

1 

1 

Natrona 

2 

2 

2 

Niobrara 

1 

1 

1 

Park 

1 

1 

1 

Sheridan  

1 

Swpfltwatpr  

4 

2 

Washakie  . 

1 

1 

As  will  be  seen  by  the  table,  the  grains  were  well  distrib- 
uted over  the  state  and  should  be  the  means  of  placing  a large 
amount  of  good  grain  in  the  hands  of  the  farmers.  One 
farmer  wrote  that  he  would  have  several  hundred  bushels  this 
year  from  his  1915  distribution. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


77 


This  year  the  work  of  distributing  winter  wheat  was  taken 
up  in  a small  way.  In  1915  three  hundred  pounds  of  Buf- 
fum’s  No.  17  winter  wheat  was  sent  to  the  manager  of  the 
Rock  River  projects.  This  promises  better  than  any  other 
winter  wheat  grown  there  this  year.  Seven  lots  of  this  winter 
wheat  have  been  sent  out  to  farmers  in  Albany  County  and 
nine  lots  to  farmers  in  other  parts  of  the  state.  . Each  lot  sent 
is  sufficient  to  plant  one  acre. 

The  Superintendent  of  State  Dry  Farms  reported  that 
cats  received  from  this  Station  yielded  better  than  any  other 
variety  at  the  Jireh  Farm.  This  distribution  work  should  be 
• extended  as  far  as  funds  will  permit. 

COOPERATION. 

In  the  spring  of  1916  the  Agronomy  Department  under- 
took some  cooperation  work  with  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture in  the  testing  of  various  grains.  Five  varieties  of  oats, 
five  varieties  of  barley,  and  two  varieties  of  wheat  were  sent 
for  trial.  These  were  planted  and  some  of  them  bid  fair  to 
produce  well  under  local  conditions. 

WINTER  GRAINS. 

Wyoming  is  short  on  winter  grains.  Winter  wheat  does 
well  in  all  parts  of  the  state,  but  no  other  winter  grains  have 
been  extensively  grown  with  the  exception  of  winter  emmer, 
and  this  has  only  been  grown  in  limited  areas  of  the  state. 
More  winter  grains  should  be  grown  and  the  Agronomy  De- 
partment has  been  working  to  find  those  hardy  enough  for  this 
purpose.  At  the  altitude  of  the  Experiment  Station  no  winter 
grains  except  wheat  have  survived  the  winters  until  this  year. 
Last  year  winter  emmer,  winter  speltz,  and  winter  wheat  were 
sown  in  July.  These  all  came  through  the  winter  in  good 
shape.  The  emmer  and  speltz  are  very  promising  crops,  and 
by  sowing  them  early,  so  that  they  can  become  well  established 
before  freezing,  they  will  undoubtedly  stand  the  winters  in  all 
parts  of  the  state.  This  year  experiments  in  the  early  sowing 
of  winter  oats,  barley,  and  speltz  are  being  tried  out. 


78  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

Late  in  the  fall  of  1915  the  Agronomist  received  a small 
quantity  of  winter  speltz  from  County  Agent  W.  R.  Reeves 
of  Crook  County.  A row  of  this  was  sown  in  the  garden.  It 
was  so  late  in  the  season,  however,  that  the  seed  did  not  ger- 
minate. It  came  on  well  this  spring,  however,  and  promises  to 
be  a good  winter  grain.  Mr.  Reeves  reports  heavy  yields  on 
the  dry  farms-  in  his  county.  A larger  area  will  be  sown  at  the 
Station  this  fall. 

Mr.  B.  S.  Tedmon,  County  Agent  of  Platte  County,  re- 
ports good  yields  of  white  winter  barley  this  year. 

SEED  ANALYSES. 

As  State  Seed  Analyst  the  Agronomist  the  past  year 
tested  601  samples  of  seed  for  the  Dairy,  Food  and  Oil  De- 
partment and  reported  purity  and  germination  on  the  same. 
A sixty-four  page  bulletin  was  also  prepared,  giving  the  re- 
sults of  the  tests  and  other  information.  A number  of  tests 
were  also  made  for  farmers  and  other  individuals  who  sent 
seeds  direct  to  the  laboratory,  and  an  annual  report  was  made 
to  the  Dairy,  Food  and  Oil  Commissioner  in  September.  Farm- 
ers and  others  should  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of 
the  seed  laboratory  more  freely  than  they  do.  Considerable 
apparatus  for  aiding  in  the  analysis  of  seeds  was  added  to  the 
laboratory  equipment  this  year,  which  greatly  facilitates  the 
work. 

EXTENSION  WORK. 

The  Agronomist  has  been  called  upon  to  do  more  ex- 
tension work  the  past  year  than  any  year  before.  But  as  there 
was  help  provided  in  the  department  to  care  for  the  teaching 
work,  the  outside  work  was  more  easily  done.  During  the 
year  the  Agronomist  devoted  nine  weeks  to  farmers’  institutes, 
two  weeks  to  teachers’  institutes,  three  weeks  to  county  and 
state  fairs,  and  one  week  to  a demonstration  train,  making  a 
total  of  fifteen  weeks. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


79 


OTHER  WORK  OE  THE  AGRONOMIST. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  duties  of  the  office,  the  Agron- 
omist has  furnished  material  for  the  Agricultural  College  De- 
partment of  the  Wyoming  Stockman-Farmer,  written  various 
articles  for  the  Wyoming  Farm  Bulletin,  prepared  a bulletin 
on  sweet  clover  and  one  on  alfalfa,  and  has  four  other  bulle- 
tins under  way.  He  has  also  written  many  articles  on  Wyo- 
ming conditions  for  farm  and  other  newspapers  and  has  writ- 
ten many  special  articles  as  requested.  Many  farms  in  the 
vicinity  of  Laramie  have  been  visited  and  advice  given  as  to 
management,  kinds  of  seed  to  use,  etc. 

The  correspondence  work  of  the  office  is  constantly  in- 
creasing. Many  inquiries  concerning  farm  topics  and  many 
plants  and  seeds  are  sent  for  identification.  All  of  these  in- 
quiries, with  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Nelson  and  other  members 
of  the  Station  Staff,  are  answered  as  promptly  as  possible. 
The  Agronomist  has  answered  on  an  average  nearly  300  let- 
ters per  month  the  past  year.  The  clerical  work  of  the  office 
has  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  a stenographer  can  be 
employed  to  good  advantage  about  four  hours  per  day. 

FARM  LABOR. 

The  Agronomist  has  had  direct  management  of  the  farm 
the  past  year.  A foreman  and  one  other  regular  assistant  have 
been  employed  throughout  the  year.  During  the  summer  vaca- 
tion of  1915  three  students  were  employed.  Two  were  em- 
ployed during  the  .vacation  of  1916.  Owing  to  the  multiplicity 
of  other  duties  the  Agronomist  is  unable  to  give  the  attention 
to  the  details  of  taking  notes,  etc.,  that  should  be  given.  It  is 
suggested  that  this  work  be  given  to  a student  assistant  next 
year.  The  Assistant  in  Agronomy  will  be  able  to  devote  some 
time  to  research  work  the  coming  year.  His  time  will  be 
largely  taken  up  with  teaching,  however,  therefore  the  research 
work  will  be  confined  mostly  to  that  which  can  be  done  in  the 
laboratory,  and  but  little  of  his  time  can  be  devoted  to  work 
at  the  farm. 


8o 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The  Agronomist  has  but  few  recommendations  to  make 
at  this  time,  as  things  are  in  very  good  shape  in  the  depart- 
ment. Another  horse  will  be  purchased  with  funds  provided 
this  year.  Still  another  horse  is  necessary,  however,  as  a three 
and  a two-horse  team  can  often  be  used  to  good  advantage. 
The  farm  buildings  will  all  need  painting  within  the  next  year, 
and  another  house  should  be  built.  The  small  greenhouse 
which  is  now  available  will  be  a great  help.  A good  sized 
greenhouse  should  be  provided  as  soon  as  possible. 

conclusion. 

More  than  six  years’  work  at  the  Experiment  Station 
show  that  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  Wyoming  are  great. 
The  relations  of  this  department  with  the  other  departments 
of  the  Station  have  been  altogether  pleasant. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


81 


Report  of  the  Animal  Husbandman 

BY  A.  D.  EAVILLE. 

EXPERIMENTAL  WORK. 

The  cattle  and  sheep  feeding  work  undertaken  during  the 
past  year  was  planned  with  the  idea  of  still  further  testing  the 
value  of  oat  and  pea  silage  in  maintenance,  growing,  and 
fattening  rations.  Experimental  lots  of  steers,  beef  breed- 
ing stock,  ewes  and  lambs  were  fed  silage  rations  formulated 
tc  meet  the  needs  of  western  stockmen.  Results  as  yet  un- 
published check  in  general  with  data  appearing  in  Bulletins 
Nos.  108  and  109,  and  show  that  the  silo  has  a definite  place 
in  western  agriculture. 

Rye,  barley,  and  barley  and  meat  meal  were  tested  in 
rations  for  fattening  swine.  Gains  made  by  all  the  lots  were 
good,  barley  and  meat  meal  giving  the  most  rapid  gains  and 
rye  showing  the  best  returns  per  hundred  pounds  of  feed  con- 
sumed. 

IMPROVEMENTS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

No  new  buildings  have  been  erected  at  the  farm  and  im- 
provements made  have  been  of  a minor  nature. 

Additional  trees  have  been  planted  and  a large  number 
that  died  during  the  winter  have  been  replaced. 

Comparatively  few  additions  have  been  made  in  the  stock 
department,  due  to  lack  of  funds.  Purchases  were  distributed 
as  follows : 1 Ayrshire  bull,  3 Ayrshire  heifers,  2 long-wooled 
rams,  4 medium-wooled  rams,  3 Duroc-Jersey  sows,  1 Duroc- 
Jersey  boar. 

departmental  nEEEds. 

Additional  stock  is  badly  needed  and  new  buildings  must 
be  provided  if  the  most  efficient  research  work  is  to  be  carrie.d 
through. 

Drainage  and  reclamation  work  will  have  to  be  undertaken 
if  the  lands  of  the  stock  farm  are  to  be  fitted  for  maximum 
crop  production. 


82 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Reports  of  the  Chemists 

BY  S.  K.  LOY,  HEAD  OB'  THE  DEPARTMENT. 


My  annual  report  of  work  done  in  the  Wyoming  Experi- 
ment Station  is  confined  to  three  projects,  as  follows: 

W.  S.  No.  3,  Chem.  No.  3-a — Vegetable  Poisons  of  the 
Range,  Woody  Aster. 

W.  S.  No.  3,  Chem.  No.  3-b — Vegetable  Poisons  of  the 
Range,  Study  of  the  Toxic  Principle. 

W.  S.  No.  3,  Chem.  No.  9-a — Larkspur. 

Owing  to  teaching  duties  in  the  University,  my  time  has 
been  broken  up  and  only  at  intermittent  periods  could  diligent 
attention  be  given  to  the  investigation  of  poisonous  plants. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  year  I devised  a method  of 
collecting  the  gases  evolved  when  portions  of  three  hundred 
grams  each  of  finely  ground  and  sieved  woody  aster  and  lark- 
spur ( Delphinium  geyeri)  were  placed  in  closed  vessels  and 
allowed  to  ferment  spontaneously  after  having  been  moistened 
with  distilled  water  containing  five-tenths  per  cent  of  sulfuric 
acid. 

These  experiments  seemed  to  indicate  that  only  carbon 
dioxide  gas  is  evolved  and  in  large  quantity  in  each  case. 

Continued  experiments  of  the  above,  with  the  addition  of 
pepsin  and  trypsin  ferments,  did  not  give  conclusive  results 
and  must  be  repeated. 

I next  extracted  large  quantities  of  the  ground  material  of 
each  plant  twice  with  water  carrying  small  measured  amounts 
of  sulfuric  acid,  pressed  out  the  extract  and,  after  neutralizing 
nearly  all  the  acid,  concentrated  the  larkspur  extract  under  di- 
minished pressure.  I allowed  the  extract  from  the  woody 
aster  to  concentrate  by  open  air  evaporation,  because  previous 
experience  has  shown  that  the  application  of  heat  for  purposes 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


83 


of  concentration  causes  decomposition  of  the  extract  into  pro- 
ducts which  make  identification  of  the  original  compound  very 
difficult. 

After  the  extraction  of  the  larkspur  with  water,  I sub- 
jected the  residue  to  percolation  with  cold  95  per  cent  alcohol 
until  the  percolate  came  clear,  concentrated  the  whole  extract 
and  prepared  it  for  detailed  examination.  I did  not  extract 
the  woody  aster  residue  with  alcohol  because  I already  have  a 
concentrated  alcoholic  extract  of  this  plant,  although  it  had 
been  obtained  by  percolation  with  hot  alcohol. 

I am  of  the  opinion  that  the  method  of  extraction  and  sub- 
sequent percolation  with  cold  water  and  alcohol,  respectively, 
is  the  better  one  to  follow,  because  it  approximates  the  condi- 
tions under  which  animals  get  the  plants  on  the  range ; and, 
since  the  primary  purpose  of  these  investigations  is  to  extract 
and  identify  the  toxic  principle,  I feel  that  at  least  part  of  my 
work  of  former  years  does  not  ofifer  the  surest  means  of  solv- 
ing this  phase  of  the  problem. 

The  scheme  of  using  hot  solvents  was  followed  after  read- 
ing the  articles  of  Powers  et  al.  in  the  Journal  of  the  Chemical 
Society  (London),  and  while  that  scheme  will  be  applicable  in 
most  cases  of  plant  investigations,  I am  convinced  of  its  im- 
practicability on  woody  aster  and  larkspur. 

I propose  to  continue  the  work  of  analyzing  the  aqueous 
and  alcoholic  concentrates  and  to  study  at  the  same  time  the 
toxic  effects  of  the  whole,  as  well  as  the  fractions  obtained 
from  them.  This  latter  work  will  be  in  co-operation  with  the 
Animal  Pathologist,  preliminary  investigations  indicating  that 
the  aqueous  extract  has  the  poisonous  properties. 

No  work  has  been  done  upon  W.  S.  No.  3,  Chemistry  No. 
3-b,  “A  Study  of  the  Toxic  Principle”,  during  the  past  year, 
because  this  project  naturally  follows  W.  S.  No.  3,  Chemistry 
No.  3-a. 


84 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Report  of  Research  Chemist 


by  Frank  e.  hfpnFr. 


As  in  former  years,  the  time  of  the  writer  has  been  divided 
between  Hatch  Fund  projects  and  those  coming  under  the 
Adams  Fund.  In  addition  to  these  lines  of  work,  however,  He 
has  had  partial  supervision  of  the  meteorological  observations, 
and  during  the  absence  on  leave  of  the  regular  professor,  a 
four-hour  lecture  and  laboratory  course  in  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry was  given  throughout  the  second  semester. 

Owing  to  these  additional  duties,  not  as  much  has  been  ac- 
complished along  research  lines  as  could  be  desired.  Another 
factor  contributing  toward  lessening  the  amount  of  research 
work  is  the  fact  that  this  laboratory  is  located  in  the  Science 
Hall,  while  the  chemical  stock  rooms  and  all  the  other  chemical 
laboratories  are  in  the  Agricultural  Hall.  This  causes  consid- 
erable loss  of  time  in  carrying  material  and  apparatus  back  and 
forth  from  one  building  to  the  other.  This  factor  will  doubt- 
less be  eliminated  before  the  close  of  another  year,  as  arrange- 
ments are  being  made  to  have  a room  in  the  Agricultural  Hall 
fitted  up  for  this  work. 

The  oversight  of  meteorological  observations  consisted 
principally  in  serving  as  a head  to  whom  the  student  observer, 
Mr.  Ferdinand  Brown,  could  report  in  case  trouble  or  accident 
occurred  during  the  absence  of  the  Acting  Director.  Mr. 
Brown  having  had  considerable  experience  in  taking  observa- 
tions, but  little  supervision  or  oversight  was  required  or  at- 
tempted with  this  phase  of  the  work  and  no  detailed  report 
thereon  will  be  made  by  the  writer.  Although  ordinarily  a 
great  deal  of  time  was  not  required  for  this  work,  occasionally, 
when  trouble  with  the  instruments  developed,  it  required  con- 
siderable time  to  locate  the  cause  and  provide  a remedy. 

As  a part  of  the  Hatch  Fund  work,  nearly  complete  an- 
alyses of  fifteen  soil  samples  were  made.  These  samples  are 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


85 


a portion  of  those  collected  in  an  effort  to  determine  the  re- 
lationship, if  any,  existing  between  the  soil  composition  and 
that  of  the  plants  grown  thereon,  especially  with  reference  to 
the  nitrogen  content.  Although  this  project  has  been  under 
way  for  several  years,  but  very  little  has  been  done  with  it, 
owing  to  the  intervention  of  other  work  of  more  immediate 
importance,  and  the  prospects  at  present  are  that  it  will  be 
still  further  delayed. 

About  twenty-five  feed  samples  were  analyzed  in  connec- 
tion with  cooperative  work  with  the  Animal  Husbandry  De- 
partment. The  results  of  these  feeding  experiments  will  soon 
be  published  in  the  form  of  bulletins  from  that  department. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  describe  the  work  done  on 
Adams  Fund  projects,  except  to  state  that  the  time  was  de- 
moted to  assisting  Mr.  Beath  in  various  ways  with  the  different 
poisonous  plant  projects  he  has  under  way.  See  his  report  as 
to  these  projects. 

A few  samples  of  a miscellaneous  character  from  various 
sources  have  been  analyzed.  The  number  has,  however,  been 
reduced  to  the  minimum,  the  desire  being  to  limit  this  class  of 
work  as  far  as  possible. 


Report  of  Engineering  Chemist 


BY  K.  T.  STEIK. 


PROJECTS. 

One  more  reaction  product  was  isolated  from  solutions  of 
sodium  chloride  in  which  ordinary  Portland  cement  was  im- 
mersed. A series  of  strength  tests  was  completed.  The  tests 
were  made  after  the  cement  had  been  in  solutions  of  alkali  salts 
for  forty  months.  The  results  of  all  work  done  will  be  pub- 
lished in  bulletin  form,  and  including  the  reactions  of  alkali 
salts  on  cement  and  their  effects  upon  the  physical  strength  of 
cement. 


86 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


project  no.  24. 

On  this  project  experiments  on  small  samples  have  been 
made  with  the  object  of  finding  mixtures  that  will  set.  From 
the  results  obtained  so  far,  it  is  evident  that  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  setting  mixtures  which  greatly  vary  in  their  chemical 
composition.  The  equipment  of  the  laboratory  has  been  im- 
proved, so  that  in  the  future  it  will  be  possible  to  prepare  larger 
quantities  of  these  and  have  them  tested  also  for  physical 
strength  in  connection  with  their  resistance  to  chemicals,  es- 
pecially to  alkali-salt  solutions. 


Report  of  Research  Chemist 


BY  O.  A.  BEATH. 


The  research  in  conjunction  with  poisonous  plants  has 
been  centered,  largely,  upon  two  species  of  the  larkspur  family, 
viz. : Delphinium  glaucum  and  Delphinium  glaucescens. 

Preliminary  experiments  have  been  completed  in  connec- 
tion with  the  alkaloids  relative  to  seasonal  variation  and  tox- 
icity, physical  form  and  ultimate  composition.  Chemically 
there  is  a marked  contrast  to  those  of  European  origin. 

The  tall  larkspur  ( Delphinium  glaucum)  when  immature 
contains  a water  soluble  crystalline  complex  alkaloid  which  is 
very  poisonous.  Upon  hydrolysis  a second  alkaloid  is  split  off 
which  is  much  less  toxic.  It  is  crystalline  and  melts  sharply  at 
ioi°  C.  At  the  time  of  flowering  the  main  alkaloid  of  the  plant 
undergoes  a transition  from  a crystalline  to  an  amorphous  form 
and  becomes  less  soluble  in  water  and  about  seven  times  less 
toxic  than  that  of  the  early  growth.  However,  it  contains  a 
second  alkaloid  (amorphous),  which  is  highly  poisonous,  as 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  one-fifteenth  of  a grain  injected 
subcutaneously  in  the  ear  of  a rabbit  produced  death  in  less 
than  thirty  seconds.  This  derived  alkaloid  may  be  obtained  in 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


8 7 


one  of  two  ways,  either  by  allowing  the  original  to  come  in 
contact  with  water  or  by  the  addition  of  a mild  alkali.  A 
third  alkaloid,  also  amorphous,  has  been  isolated  from  the  or- 
iginal water  soluble  form.  It  is  scarcely  toxic  in  ordinary  doses. 

Upon  going  to  seed  the  tall  larkspur  does  not  lose  its  alka- 
loids, but  they  become  highly  resistive  to  being  broken  up  into 
poisonous  constituents  of  a harmful  nature.  The  main  alka- 
loidal  complex  becomes  less  soluble  in  water  and  much  less 
toxic  in  itself.  The  derived  poison  corresponding  to  that  at 
at  the  time  of  flowering  is  not  obtained  so  easily,  in  fact  it 
can  be  separated  only  by  the  use  of  strong  reagents. 

The  species  Delphinium  glaucescens  is  quite  different  chem- 
ically from  that  of  the  tall  larkspur.  The  alkaloids  are  crystal- 
line through  the  entire  growth  of  the  plant.  Fresh  plants,  when 
well  crushed  and  macerated  with  water,  yielded  nothing  that 
would  affect  rabbits.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
alkaloids  are  not  nearly  as  poisonous  as  those  of  the  other  spe- 
cies. Experiments  have  shown  that  it  requires  about  three 
times  more  alkaloid  to  kill  than  does  the  active  principle  of  the 
tall  larkspur.  The  alkaloids  of  Delphinium  glaucescens  have 
higher  melting  points  than  any  other  larkspur  heretofore 
studied.  A bulletin  will  be  issued  during  the  coming  year  pre- 
senting data  in  regard  to  this  species. 

The  available  data  dealing  with  Delphinium  glaucum  will 
will  be  withheld  until  a detailed  study  is  made  of  the  early 
growth,  inasmuch  as  the  immature  plants  have  been  found  to 
contain  active  poisons  decidedly  different  in  form  and  toxicity. 

Experiments  have  been  made  during  the  past  year  dealing 
with  methods  preliminary  to  a detailed  study  of  Lupinus  ar- 
genteus.  The  chemical  analysis  of  the  resin  has  been  com- 
pleted. 

The  poisonous  principle  has  been  isolated  from  woody 
aster  and  a small  quantity  purified.  Its  properties  are  entirely 
different  from  those  commonly  found  in  poisonous  plants  on 
the  range.  When  mixed  with  an  excess  of  alkali  the  poison 
loses  its  toxicity. 


88 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Report  of  the  Parasitologist 


by  j.  w.  SCOTT. 


1.  RESUME  OF  WORK  IN  THE)  DEPARTMENT  OF  PARASITOLOGY  FOR 

1916-1917. 

The  Transmission  of  Swamp  Fever  in  Horses. 

Last  year  there  was  discovered  an  apparently  natural 
method  of  transmitting  swamp  fever  by  means  of  the  stable 
fly,  Stomoxys  calcitrans.  Additional,  carefully  planned  experi- 
ments have  further  verified  this  discovery.  In  one  cage  three 
healthy  horses  were  kept  with  three  horses  that  had  the  dis- 
ease, both  being  exposed  to  the  stable  flies  in  this  cage;  two 
out  of  three  of  the.healthy  horses  took  the  disease.  In  another 
cage  without  stable  flies,  two  well  horses  were  kept  with  in- 
fected horses,  and  neither  one  took  the  disease.  The  circum- 
stantial evidence,  therefore,  is  very  strong  for  believing  that  at 
least  one  of  the  natural  methods  of  the  transmission  of  swamp 
fever  is  by  means  of  Stomoxys  calcitrans.  Other  experiments, 
with  negative  results,  have  shown  that  the  disease  is  probably 
not  transmitted  by  means  of  the  mosquitoes  of  this  region. 
Recent  German  writers  have  put  forward  the  hypothesis  that 
infectious  anemia,  or  swamp  fever,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in 
this  country,  is  produced  by  a secretion  from  bot-fly  larvae. 
Certain  tests  have  shown,  under  the  conditions  of  our  experi- 
ments, that  the  disease  was  not  produced  by  this  means.  Our 
work  confirms  the  general  inference  recently  drawn  by  the 
Japanese  Commission  from  the  results  of  pasturing  experi- 
ments, though  they  believed  that  other  biting  flies,  and  prob- 
ably not  the  stable  fly,  were  responsible  for  the  transmission 
of  swamp  fever.  It  is  believed  that  work  has  advanced  far 
enough  so  that  we  may  give  certain  general  directions  in  regard 
to  how  to  control  the  disease. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


89 


Life  Cycle  of  Taenia  (Moniezia)  expansa. 

The  experiments  done  during  the  summer  of  1914  were 
repeated  in  1915.  However,  the  results  were  all  negative,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  conditions  were  apparently  more  fa- 
vorable than  the  previous  year.  The  results  neither  affirm  nor 
disprove  the  work  of  1914,  so  more  experiments  will  be  neces- 
sary to  prove  a natural  method  of  transmission.  Other  ex- 
periments resulted  as  follows : ( 1 ) Lambs  did  not  become 

infected  as  the  result  of  being  fed  ripe  proglottids ; (2)  lambs 
did  not  become  infected  as  the  result  of  drinking  from  aquaria 
in  which  ripe  proglottids  had  been  scattered;  (3)  a lamb  did 
not  become  infected  as  the  result  of  eating  grass  raised  in 
aquaria  containing  snails,  where  ripe  proglottids  had  been 
scattered;  (4)  lambs  did  not  become  infected  from  eating 
grass  grown  on  damp  earth  where  ripe  proglottids  had  been 
scattered,  this  being  true  whether  the  grass  was  grown  near  or 
removed  from  water;  and  (5)  a lamb  did  not  become  in- 
fected with  tapeworms  as  the  result  of  eating  certain  insects 
that  had  been  kept  some  time  in  a vivarium  where  proglottids 
had  been  scattered.  Other  experiments  will  be  used  during 
the  ensuing  year. 

Life  Cycle  of  Thysanosoma  actinioides. 

Our  work  has  further  verified  the  conclusion  that  stand-, 
ing  water , or  at  least  a swampy  area,  is  a necessary  cojidition 
for  infection.  Another  series  of  experiments  has  given  us  no 
positive  information  in  regard  to  the  life  cycle  of  Thysanosoma, 
though  the  negative  results  are  interesting  and  may  help  us  in 
finally  solving  the  life  history.  The  results  obtained  appear 
tc  vouchsafe  the  following  conlusicons : (1)  Lambs  do  not 

become  infected  by  eating  pond  snails  that  have  been  exposed 
to  ripe  proglottids;  (2)  lambs  do  not  become  infected  either 
through  grass  or  water,  from  aquaria  containing  snails  which 
have  been  exposed  to  ripe  proglottids;  (3)  lambs  cannot  be 
infected  by  feeding  them  ripe  proglottids;  (4)  lambs  do  not 
become  infected  from  eating  grass  from  aquaria,  or  from  damp 


90  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

ground,  where  infective  feces  have  been  scattered,  this  being 
true  whether  snails  are  present  or  not;  (5)  lambs  do  not  be- 
come infected  by  eating  certain  insects  that  have  been  exposed 
to  infective  sheep  feces. 

The  Life  History  of  Sarcocystis  tenella. 

We  have  been  more  fortunate  with  our  results  on  this 
project.  The  negative  results  of  the  year  before  led  us  to  plan 
a new  series  of  experiments  based  on  the  hypothesis  that  the 
sheep  is  not  the  definitive  host  of  Sarcocystis  tenella.  With- 
out going  into  details,  we  have  obtained  the  following  general 
results : 

(1)  Lambs  may  become  infected  with  the  sarcocystis  by 

eating  grass. 

(2)  Lambs  may  become  infected  by  eating  certain  kinds 

of  insects. 

(3)  Lambs  do  not  become  infected  by  eating  certain  other 

kinds  of  insects. 

(4)  Lambs  were  not  infected  by  drinking  from  aquaria 

in  which  were  placed  killed  insects  which  were 

supposedly  infective. 

(5)  A lamb  was  not  infected  by  drinking  from  an  aqua- 

rium in  which  had  been  placed  infected  heart 

muscle. 

These  results  are  so  gratifying  that  it  is  believed  that  we 
are  now  in  a position  to  work  out  the  life  history  in  the  near 
future. 

II.  SUGGESTIONS  IN  REGARD  TO  THE  FUTURE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
THE  WORK  IN  PARASITOLOGY. 

No  additional  problems  will  be  undertaken  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Parasitology  in  the  coming  year.  With  our  present 
facilities  and  available  help,  we  could  not  start  work  on  any 
new  projects  without  in  a degree  neglecting  the  work  on 
problems  already  started.  There  are,  however,  a number  of 
important  parasites  in  Wyoming  on  which  work  could,  and 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


9i 


should,  be  started  in  the  near  future.  I may  mention  only  a 
few  of  the  more  important  ones: 

(1)  The  severe  boil-like  sore,  said  to  be  produced  by  the 

bite  of  the  Deer-fly  (Chrysops) , should  be  stu- 
died, and  its  exact  nature  and  cause  determined. 

(2)  Rocky  Mountain  Spotted  Fever  is  becoming  more 

widespread,  more  prevalent,  and  more  virulent 
in  Wyoming.  The  exact  source  of  the  disease 
is  unknown,  and  its  control  should  be  studied. 

(3)  Practically  nothing  is  known  of  the  mosquitoes  of 

Wyoming,  or  of  their  relations  to  man  and  an- 
imals. 

(4)  There  are  hundreds  of  colts  and  calves  lost  each  year 

from  a mysterious  disease,  or  diseases,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state.  This  is  perhaps  a 
problem  for  the  Veterinarian,  but  parasites  may 
possibly  be  involved. 

(5)  Work  should  be  started  toward  developing  a serum 

for  swamp  fever.  This  should  be  done  conjoint- 
ly with  the  Veterinarian. 

Many  other  problems  could  be  started,  all  worthy  of  our 
best  efforts,  but  these  examples  are  enough  to  show  the  im- 
portant need  of  work  in  this  department. 


92 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Report  of  the  Acting  Veterinarian 


BY  J.  I.  KIRKPATRICK. 


Veterinary  Project  No.  i,  Vegetable  Poisons  of  the  Range, 
in  co-operation  with  Mr.  0.  A.  Beath,  Research  Chemist.  Ex- 
tensive work  has  been  carried  on  in  determining  the  toxicity 
and  the  nature  of  the  toxic  principle  of  the  mountain  lark- 
spur, Delphinium  sub-alpinum.  Water  extracts  of  the  various 
portions  of  the  plant,  as  stems,  leaves,  flowers,  and  seeds,  have 
been  given  to  rabbits  by  stomach  tube  injection.  Also  alcoholic 
and  chloroform  extracts  of  the  active  alkaloidal  principle  of 
the  leaves  of  the  larkspur  have  been  injected  with  gratifying 
results.  For  results  obtained  refer  to  Mr.  Beath’s  detailed 
report.  Further  work  in  determining  the  nature  of  the  toxic 
principle,  its  effect  on  vital  organs  of  the  body,  the  discovery 
of  an  antidote  for  the  same,  will  be  attempted  in  the  imme- 
diate future. 

Veterinary  Project  No.  4,  Transmission  of  Swamp  Fever, 
in  co-operation  with  Dr.  J.  W.  Scott.  Many  samples  of  blood 
have  been  drawn  from  swamp  fever  patients  and  misroscop- 
ically  examined.  The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  determine  the 
percentage  of  swamp  fever  patients  usually  affected  with  per- 
nicious anemia.  This  condition  is  indicated  by  the  red  cor- 
puscular content  of  the  blood.  A marked  diminution  in  the 
number  of  red  corpuscles  per  unit  volume  is  indicative  of  the 
degree  of  anemic  condition  present.  The  work  so  far  with 
one  exception  shows  that  the  red  corpuscular  content  of  the 
bloods  ranges  from  a very  small  change  from  normal  to  a de- 
crease of  over  seventy  per  cent  per  unit  volume.  The  one  case 
mentioned  seems  to  show  an  increase  in  the  corpuscular  con- 
tent, or  perhaps  is  only  due  to  a decrease  in  the  plasmic  content 
of  the  blood.  This  work  is  in  operation  at  the  present  time. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


93 


Report  of  the  Wool  Specialist 


BY  J.  A.  HILL. 


The  experimental  work  of  the  Wool  Department  during 
the  past  year  consisted  of  work  on  two  projects.  One  of  these 
was  “The  Regain  of  Unwashed  Wool”.  In  it  the  problem 
studied  was  whether  or  not  the  moisture  content  of  the  na- 
tural impurities  of  unwashed  wool  responded  more  readily 
to  moisture  changes  of  the  surrounding  air  than  does  the 
moisture  content  of  the  pure  wool  that  remains  after  these 
natural  impurities  are  removed.  Enough  work  was  done  on 
this  project  to  make  it  clear  that  the  yolk,  that  is  to  say,  the 
mixture  of  wool-fat  and  dried  perspiration,  which  is  found 
in  all  unwashed  wool,  shows  greater  moisture  changes  in  re- 
sponse to  moisture  changes  of  the  surrounding  air  than  does 
the  pure  fiber  itself.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mixture  of  sand 
and  dust  that  is  often  present  in  large  quantities  in  our  wools 
from  the  range  states  is  much  less  sensitive  to  changes  of 
atmospheric  moisture  content  than  is  the  pure  fiber.  Hence, 
in  order  to  show  the  bearing  these  results  have  on  the  prac- 
tical problems  of  the  wool  trade,  it  may  be  said  that,  in  send- 
ing wool  from  the  dry  climate  of  the  western  states  to  the 
moisture-laden  atmosphere  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  larger 
the  proportion  of  sand  and  dust  it  contains  the  less  will  be  the 
relative  gain  in  weight  due  to  increased  moisture  content; 
but  the  larger  the  proportion  of  yolk  in  the  unwashed  wool 
the  greater  will  be  the  relative  increase  in  moisture  content. 
As  the  work  on  this  project  is  extended  so  as  to  indude  more 
and  more  measurements  obtained  by  methods  more  and  more 
refined,  it  should  be  possible  to  state  the  laws  of  the  change  of 
moisture  content  in  unwashed  wool  with  more  and  more  ex- 
actness until  it  is  possible  to  say  that  they  may  be  expressed  of 
one  or  two  simple  formulae. 


94  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

The  other  experiment  worked  on  during  the  year  was, 
“The  Effect  of  Moisture  Content  Upon  the  Strength  of  Wool 
Fiber.”  Work  done  in  preceding  years  had  made  it  apparent 
that  as  the  moisture  content  of  the  fiber  decreased  from  satu- 
ration to  some  point  not  far  short  of  absolute  dryness,  the 
strength  of  the  fiber  increases.  Owing  to  difficulties  connected 
with  keeping  the  moisture  of  each  fiber  under  exact  control 
until  the  instant  it  is  broken  very  little  progress  was  made. 
Some  plans  for  moisture  control  were  tried  and  found  un- 
workable. The  results  of  many  measurements,  where  the 
moisture  content  of  the  fibers  were  known  only  approximately, 
gave  additional  verification  of  the  theories  based  on  the  re- 
sults of  the  work  of  preceding  years,  but  on  the  whole  there 
was  very  slight  progress. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


95 


Meteorological  Summary 


FERDINAND  BROWN,  OBSERVER. 


The  favorable  weather  which  continued  during  the  fall  of 
1914  changed  in  January,  1915,  to  a period  of  storms.  The 
total  precipitation  for  the  month  was  more  than  five  times 
normal,  while  the  mean  temperature  was  2.5  degrees  below  the 
twenty-year  mean.  (Wyo.  Agr.  Exp.  Station  Bui.  No.  100, 
1913,  P.  36.) 

February  was  somewhat  warmer  than  normal,  with  a pre- 
cipitation of  nearly  three  times  the  twenty-year  mean.  Not- 
withstanding the  high  precipitation,  the  percentage  of  sunshine 
was  far  above  normal,  due  to  the  fact  that  there  were  only 
four  storms  during  the  month  of  any  consequence  and  the 
principal  portion  of  the  total  precipitation  for  the  month  came 
in  one  day. 

March  was  a cold,  stormy  month.  The  mean  temperature 
was  lower  than  for  the  preceding  month,  while  the  precipita- 
tion was  double  of  that  of  February.  Freezing  weather  con- 
tinued throughout  the  month. 

Stormy  weather  continued  throughout  April,  with  a slight 
excess  of  precipitation,  but  with  a rising  temperature,  so  that 
the  mean  temperature  for  the  month  was  1 degree  higher  thau 
for  any  April  for  which  there  is  record  at  Laramie. 

May  was  backward.  The  last  killing  frost  occurred  the 
28th  of  the  month.  The  precipitation  was  somewhat  above 
normal. 

The  cool  weather  continued  into  June  and  July,  with  a 
clightly  sub-normal  precipitation. 

August  continued  cool,  with  a slight  excess  of  precipita- 
tion, while  September  continued  about  normal.  The  wind 
records  for  these  two  months  shows  a greatly  sub-normal 
velocity,  total  mileage  being  less  than  eight  thousand  for  this 


9 6 Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

period.  A very  light  frost  occurred  the  night  of  September  9, 
but  no  damage  was  done. 

The  first  killing  frost  occurred  October  3,  which  is  much 
later  than  usual.  Crops  were  harvested  in  excellent  shape  and 
threshing  was  uninterrupted. 

Plowing  upon  the  Station  farms  continued  until  the  mid- 
dle of  November. 

December  was  a normal  month,  with  a slight  excess  of 
precipitation. 

The  mean  temperature,  because  of  the  cool  spring  and 
summer,  was  sub-normal.  The  total  precipitation  for  the  year 
was  2.7  inches  above  the  twenty-year  mean.  There  was  much 
less  wind  than  usual.  Only  one  month  approached  the  normal 
wind  velocity. 

The  year  may  be  characterized  as  being  a good  one  for  the 
stockmen.  The  range  was  in  good  condition ; the  grasses 
cured  well,  giving  excellent  winter  feed  for  stock;  and  the 
snows  were  not  excessive. 

SUMMARY  FOR  1915. 

Maximum  temperature  during  the  year : 84°,  July  14. 

Minimum  temperature  during  the  year : — 14°,  January  16. 

Greatest  daily  range : 42°,  March  22. 

Least  daily  range  : 4°,  April  23. 

Highest  barometer  : 23.404  inches,  July  20. 

Lowest  barometer : 22.453  inches,  November  24th. 

Greatest  velocity  of  wind  per  hour : 43  miles  N.  W.,  1 p.  m.  Nov.  19. 

Greatest  number  of  miles  in  one  day:  633  miles,  November  23. 

Least  number  of  miles  in  one  day : 24  miles,  February  23. 

Mean  daily  distance : 207.5  miles. 

Mean  hourly  distance : 8.6  miles. 

Date  of  light  summer  frost : September  9. 

First  killing  frost:  October  3. 

Highest  dew  point:  71°,  July  17. 

Lowest  dew  point : — 14°,  December  27. 

Highest  relative  humidity:  100  per  cent,  January  5. 

Lowest  relative  humidity:  27  per  cent,  July  12. 

Greatest  precipitation  for  a single  storm : 0.76  inch,  February  12. 

Number  of  days  on  which  .01  inch  or  more  precipitation  fell:  94. 

Total  precipitation  for  the  year  : 12.92  inches. 


METEOROLOGICAL  SUMMARY,  1915,  BY  MONTHS. 


Twenty-Sixth  Annual  Report. 


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METEOROLOGICAL  SUMMARY,  1915,  BY  MONTHS— (Continued) 


98  Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


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January  

February  

March  

April  

May  

June  

July  



September  

October  

November  

December  

INDEX 


Page 

Aberdeen  Angus  Feed  Require- 
ments   6 

Aberdeen  Angus,  Weights  and 

gains 5,  9 

Acting  Director,  Report  of 64 

Activities,  General 68 

Agronomist,  Report  of 72 

Analysis,  Cornmeal 8 

Analyses  of  Cotton  Seed  Cake. 4,  8 

Analysis,  Bran 8 

Analysis  of  Feeds 59 

Analysis,  Native  Hay 8 

Analyses  of  Seed 78 

Alfalfa 73 

Alfalfa,  Analysis  of 42,59 

Alfalfa  Meal  in  Fattening  Ra- 
tions   26 

Alfalfa  vs.  Pea  Hay  for  Brood 

Sows 25 

Alfalfa  for  Growing  Pigs 22 

Animal  Husbandman,  Report  of  81 

Annual  Report,  25th 65 

Annual  Report,  26th 61 

Barley,  Analysis  of 59 

Barley  vs.  Corn  for  Fattening 

Lambs 54 

Barley  vs.  Corn  Meal  for  Pigs.  .24 
Beef  Cattle,  Growing ; Mixed 
Grain  vs.  Cottonseed  Cake  for  7 

Beef  Cows,  Silage  for 36 

Bran,  Analysis  of 8 

Breeding  Ewes,  Silage  for 56 

Bulletins 65 

Bulletin  106 65 

Bulletin  No.  106 — I.  Cottonseed 
Cake  vs.  Cold  Pressed  Cotton- 
seed Cake  for  Beef  Cows  ; II. 
Mixed  Grain  vs.  Cottonseed 
Cake  for  Growing  Beef  Cattle  1 
Bulletin  No.  107,  Conclusions.  . .14 
Bulletin  No.  107,  Swine  Feeding  12 
Bulletin  107,  Swine  Feeding. . . .66 
Bulletin  No.  108,  Cattle  Feeding  28 
Bulletin  No.  108,  Cattle  Feeding  66 
Bulletin  No.  108,  Digest 29 


Page 

Bulletin  109,  Sheep  Feeding 67 

Cattle  Feeding,  Bulletin  No.  108  28 
Cattle,  Growing,  Silage  for . 37, 39, 41 

Cattle,  Weights  and  Gain 5 

Chemists,  Report  of 82 

Conclusions,  Bulletin  No.  106.  ..11 
Conclusions,  Bulletin  No.  107.  . .15 

Cooperation 77 

Corn,  Analysis  of 59 

Corn  vs.  Barley  for  Fattening 

Lambs 54 

Corn  Meal,  Analysis  of 8,42 

Corn  Meal  vs.  Barley  Meal  for 

Pigs 24 

Cottonseed  Cake,  Analysis  of.. 4,  8 
Cottonseed  Cake  vs.  Mixed 

Grain 3 

Cows,  Beef,  Feeding  Experi- 
ments with 1 

Cows,  Beef,  Silage  for 36 

Crop  Rotations 75 

Digest,  Bulletin  No.  108 29 

Digest,  Bulletin  No.  109 47 

Director,  Acting,  Report  of  . . . .64 

Distribution  of  Seed .76 

Engineering  Chemist,  Report  of  .85 
Equipment  and  Improvements.  .81 

Extension  Work 78 

Ewes,  Breeding,  Silage  for 56 

Farm  Labor 79 

Fattening  Pigs,  Pea  Pasture  for.  16 

Feeds,  Analysis  of 59 

Feeds,  Cattle 32 

Feeds,  Composition  of 27 

Feed,  Prices 52 

Feeds,  Price,  Cattle 33 

Feed  for  100  Pounds  Gain 10 

Feed  Requirements,  Cattle 6 

Fertilizers 75 

Forage  Crops 74 

Grade  and  Pure  Bred  Pigs  Com- 
pared   21 

Gains,  Weights,  Cattle 5 

Grain,  Mixed,  vs.  Cottonseed 
Cake 3 


IOO 


Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Page 

Grains,  Small,  1916 74 

Grains,  Winter 77 

Hay,  Native,  Analysis  of 8 

Hereford,  Feed  Requirements.  . 6 
Hereford,  Weights  and  Gains. 5,  9 
Hurdling  Pea  Pasture  for  Pigs.  16 
Improvements  and  Equipment.  .81 

Improvements 75 

Labor,  Farm 79 

Lambs,  Fattening,  Silage  for... 52 

Lambs,  Prices 52 

Lambs,  Ram,  Silage  for 57 

Letter  of  Transmittal 63 

Letter  of  Submittal 63 

Machinery,  New 76 

Meteorological  Summary 95 

Meteorological  Tables 97,98 

Mill  Feed,  Analysis  of 42,  59 

Native  Hay,  Analysis  of 8,42 

Need,  Animal  Husbandry 81 

Needs,  Station 68 

Oats,  Analysis  of 42 

Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Fatten- 
ing Lambs 52 

Oat  and  Pea  Silage  for  Steers.  .34 

Organization  and  Staff 64 

Parasitologist,  Report  of 88 

Pasture,  Pea,  for  Fattening  Pigs  16 
Pea  Hay  vs.  Alfalfa  Hay  for 

Brood  Sows 25 

Pea  and  Oat  Silage  for  Fatten- 
ing Lambs 52 

Pea  and  Oat  Silage  for  Steers.  .34 
Pea  Pasture  for  Fattening  Pigs  16 

Pea  Pasture,  Hurdling 16 

Pigs,  Fattening.  Pea  Pasture  for  16 
Pigs,  Grain  for  100  Pounds  Gaini  19 
Pigs,  Grade  and  Pure  Bred 

Compared 21 

Pigs,  Growing,  Alfalfa  for 22 

Pigs,  Total  and  Daily  Grain  Ra- 
tion   18 

Potatoes  74 

Publications 65 


Page 

Pure  Bred  and  Grade  Pigs  Com- 
pared   21 

Ram  Lambs,  Silage  for 57 

Recommendations,  Agronomy.. 80 
Report  of  Acting  Director... ...  .64 

Report  of  Acting  Veterinarian.. 92 

Report  of  Agronomist 72 

Report  of  Animal  Husbandman  81 

Report,  Annual,  26th 61 

Report,  Annual,  25th 65 

Report  of  Chemists 82 

Report  of  Engineering  Chemist. 85 

Report  of  Parasitologist 88 

Report  of  Research  Chemists  84,  86 

Report  of  Treasurer  70 

Report  of  Wool  Specialist 93 

Rotations,  Crop 75 

Russian  Thistle,  Analysis  of... 42 

Sarcocystis  tenealla 90 

Seed  Analyses 78 

Seed  Distribution 76 

Sheep  Feeding,  Bulletin  No.  109  45 

Shelter  for  Cattle 34 

Short  Horn,  Feed  Requirements  6 
Short  Horn,  Weights  and  Gains  5 

Silage,  Analysis  of 42 

Silage  for  Breeding  Ewes 56 

Silage  for  Growing  Cattle.  37,39,41 
Silage  in  Maintenance  Rations.  .35 
Silage,  Oat  and  Pea,  Analysis  of  59 
Silage,  Pea  and  Oat,  for  Steers. 34 

Silage  for  Ram  Lambs 57 

Staff  .‘ 64 

Station  Needs 68 

Swamp  Fever  in  Horses 88 

Swine  Feeding,  Bulletin  No.  107  12 

Taenia  expansa F9 

Treasurer’s  Report 70 

Thysanosoma  actinioides 89 

Veterinarian,  Acting,  Report  of. 92 

Weather,  1916 72 

Weights  and  Gains,  Cattle 5 

Winter  Grains 77 

Wool  Specialist,  Report  of 93 

Work,  Extension 78 


